Mobile phone A cell phone has two main capacities > WEB 중요웹사이트연결

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Mobile phone    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone

Central processing unit    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit

Microprocessor    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor

System on a chip    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_on_a_chip

Semiconductor memory    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_memory

Memory cell (computing)    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)
https://canadakorea.ca/bbs/board.php?bo_table=cki_vanweb&wr_id=481
콤퓨터용어   

**D램과 낸드플래시(Nand Flash)의**DRAM (dynamic random access memory)- ***CPU-…  https://canadakorea.ca/bbs/board.php?bo_table=cki_it&wr_id=13&page=4

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Cell phone memory refers to two distinct things: Internal Storage (like a hard drive), which holds your operating system, apps, photos, videos, and other files; and RAM (Random Access Memory), which is temporary memory for currently active apps and processes, providing speed but not long-term storage. For most users, 64GB to 128GB of storage is sufficient, though heavy users may need 256GB or more, while RAM requirements vary based on device complexity and user habits.
Internal Storage (e.g., 64GB, 128GB, 256GB)

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A cell phone has two main capacities: its storage capacity, measured in gigabytes (GB) or terabytes (TB), and its battery capacity, measured in milliampere-hours (mAh). Storage capacity determines how much data (apps, photos, videos) the phone can hold, with modern phones offering options from 64GB to over 1TB. Battery capacity indicates how long the phone can run on a single charge, with typical capacities ranging from 2,500 mAh to over 5,000 mAh.


"GB" can refer to a few different things: a Gigabyte, a unit of digital information storage (1 billion bytes); Great Britain, a geographical island and political entity; a British news and radio channel, GB News; or even a Belgian supermarket chain, GB. To provide a more specific answer, more context about your "gb" is needed.

A byte is the fundamental unit of digital information in computers, consisting of 8 bits. It can represent a single character, such as a letter or a number, and is used to measure file sizes and storage capacities. Bytes are the smallest "addressable" unit of memory, meaning the computer can access information in byte-sized chunks.

What does byte mean?
A byte is a unit of digital information consisting of 8 bits. It can represent a single character, such as a letter, number, or symbol, in computer language. Bytes are used to measure the size of computer files and storage capacity, with larger files requiring more bytes to store and transmit.

A bit is the smallest unit of digital information and can have a value of either 0 or 1. A byte, on the other hand, is a group of bits that is typically composed of eight bits. Bytes are used to represent larger amounts of information, such as letters, numbers, or symbols.

Cell phone calls work by converting your voice into digital signals, which are then transmitted as radio waves to a nearby cell tower. This tower routes the call through a cellular network, relaying it to the tower closest to the recipient. The process then reverses: the recipient's tower sends the radio signal to their phone, where it's converted back into sound for them to hear. This "cellular" architecture uses small, overlapping areas (cells), each with a tower, to manage communication efficiently and allow for calls to continue seamlessly as you move between cells.
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How a call is made:
1. Voice to Signal:
When you speak, your phone's microphone turns your voice into an electrical signal.
2. Digital Conversion:
A microchip converts this electrical signal into a series of digital ones and zeros.
3. Radio Wave Transmission:
Your phone's antenna sends these digital signals as radio waves to the closest cell tower.
4. Network Routing:
The tower's base station receives the signal and sends it through the cellular network infrastructure to the destination.
5. Recipient's Phone:
The signal travels to the cell tower nearest the recipient, which then transmits the radio waves to their phone.
6. Signal to Sound:
The recipient's phone converts the radio signal back into a digital signal and then into the sound of your voice.
The Cellular Network:
Cells:
The service area is divided into smaller areas called "cells," each served by a cell tower.
Towers:
Cell towers act as relay stations, receiving and sending radio wave signals.
Infrastructure:
The towers are connected to a core network infrastructure, often using fiber optic cables, to route calls to their destination.
Handoffs:
As you move between cells during a call, your phone seamlessly switches from one tower to another, ensuring your call isn't dropped.
This system allows for efficient use of radio frequencies and enables multiple people to use their phones simultaneously within different cells, even on the same frequency.
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How do cellphones work? - Explain that Stuff
Feb 20, 2025 — When you speak into a cellphone, a tiny microphone in the handset converts the up-and-down sounds of your voice into a...

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콤퓨터관련정보    https://namu.wiki/w/%EC%BB%B4%ED%93%A8%ED%84%B0%20%EA%B4%80%EB%A0%A8%20%EC%A0%95%EB%B3%B4

콤퓨터 용어  https://canadakorea.ca/bbs/board.php?bo_table=cki_it&wr_id=14&page=2

Computing terminology    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Computing_terminology

List of computer term etymologieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_term_etymologies

computer-related-terms-abbreviations/    https://unacademy.com/content/bank-exam/study-material/computer-knowledge/computer-related-terms-abbreviations/
Computer Abbreviations for Basic Components
AFA – All-Flash Array.
BIOS – Basic Input Output System.
BYTE – Storage Unit.
CPU – Central Processing Unit.
HDD – Hard Disk Drive.
LCD – Liquid Crystal Display.
OS – Operating System.
PC – Personal Computer.
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HBM (High Bandwidth Memory) is a type of DRAM designed for high-performance computing, while DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) is a broader category of memory that includes various types like DDR. HBM excels in situations requiring extremely fast data transfer and lower power consumption, making it ideal for applications like AI and high-performance graphics.

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알고리즘이란 컴퓨터가 따라 할 수 있도록 문제를 해결하는 절차나 방법을 자세히 설명하는 과정이다. 이를 자세히 설명하면 컴퓨터를 활용한 문제 해결 과정에서 주어진 문제를 해결하는 일련의 방법 또는 절차이며, 문제해결 방법을 순서대로, 절차대로 나열한 것이라고 볼 수 있다.

Algorithm (알고리즘)
In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is a finite sequence of mathematically rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to perform a computation. Algorithms are used as specifications for performing calculations and data processing.
Source:
Wikipediahttps://brunch.co.kr/@shortjisik/95

— 알고리즘이란 어떤 값을 입력받아 다른 값을 출력하는 계산 절차를 의미합니다. 표현은 간단하지만 실제로는 그렇지 않습니다. ​. 알고리즘 자체는 .
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    비트(bit, binary digit)는 하나의 비트는 0이나 1의 값을 가질 수 있고, 각각은 참, 거짓 혹은 서로 배타적인 상태를 나타낸다. 바이트는 비트가 여러 개 모인 것으로, 원래는 크기가 명확히 정해져 있지 않았지만, 현재는 대개 1옥텟인 8비트가 1바이트이다.
               
— 컴퓨터 내에서 정보를 처리[1]하는 가장 작은 단위. 어원은 1번 항목으로, Binary digit(이진 정수)에서 bit이라는 단어를 만들었고, bit이 동사 bite의 ...

The byte is a unit of digital information that most commonly consists of eight bits. Historically, the byte was the number of bits used to encode a single .

https://namu.wiki › 비트(정보 단위)
현재의 비트는 컴퓨터가 처리하는 이산 데이터의 양을 표기하는 단위로 ... 보통 컴퓨터에서 32비트, 64비트 등으로 이야기하는 것은 CPU에서 한 번에 얼마나 ...

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LED  OLED 유기발광 다이오드    https://namu.wiki/w/OLED

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불루투스 와이파이 에어드롭은 어떻게 다른 걸까?    https://canadakorea.ca/bbs/board.php?bo_table=cki_it&wr_id=37
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스마트폰(smartphone)    https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%EB%A7%88%ED%8A%B8%ED%8F%B0
스마트폰    .https://namu.wiki/w/%EC%8A%A4%EB%A7%88%ED%8A%B8%ED%8F%B0  https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%EB%A7%88%ED%8A%B8%ED%8F%B0

Smartphone    https://en.namu.wiki/w/SMARTPHONE

Smartphone    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone
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2024년 1분기 스마트폰 공급업체 시장 점유율 순위:
삼성 20%
애플 17%
샤오미 14%
오포 8%
비보 7%
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.  Apple 28.38%  Samsung 22.82% . Xiaomi 10.62% 4  Vivo 5.67%    https://canadakorea.ca/bbs/board.php?bo_table=cki_eco&wr_id=95
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스마트폰 세계점유율 순위
https://www.google.ca/search?q=%EC%8A%A4%EB%A7%88%ED%8A%B8%ED%8F%B0+%EC%84%B8%EA%B3%84%EC%A0%90%EC%9C%A0%EC%9C%A8+%EC%88%9C%EC%9C%84&sca_esv=5d26048b6932b442&sxsrf=AHTn8zqmFJHbSNc-w3n4-pssjJpP4kYHDg%3A1747779559849&source=hp&ei=5_8saOOQMcfG0PEP6Z6b6Ac&iflsig=ACkRmUkAAAAAaC0N94ZKej3F8WRX6c-p48Vob45nz5lb&oq=%EC%8A%A4%EB%A7%88%ED%8A%B8%ED%8F%B0+%EC%84%B8%EA%B3%84%EC%A0%90%EC%9C%A0%EC%9C%A8&gs_lp=Egdnd3Mtd2l6IhzsiqTrp4jtirjtj7Ag7IS46rOE7KCQ7Jyg7JyoKgIIADIFECEYoAFI164BUABYt5ABcAh4AJABAJgBlQGgAdUQqgEEMTUuObgBAcgBAPgBAZgCIKACvxOoAgrCAgoQIxiABBgnGIoFwgIEECMYJ8ICCxAAGIAEGLEDGIMBwgILEC4YgAQYsQMYgwHCAhEQLhiABBixAxjRAxiDARjHAcICBRAAGIAEwgIIEAAYgAQYsQPCAgcQIxgnGOoCwgIFEC4YgATCAg4QLhiABBjHARiOBRivAcICCxAuGIAEGNEDGMcBwgILEC4YgAQYxwEYrwHCAgUQABjvBcICBBAAGB7CAgYQABgFGB7CAgYQABgIGB7CAgcQABiABBgNwgIIEAAYBRgNGB7CAggQABgIGA0YHpgDDPEFANBrhbolLVqSBwUyMi4xMKAH19cBsgcFMTQuMTC4B-cS&sclient=gws-wiz
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스마트폰(영어: smartphone)은 소프트웨어의 호환성이 높고, 전화 및 메시지 송·수신이 가능한, 휴대 전화와 컴퓨팅 기능을 하나로 통합한 모바일 장치다. 스마트폰은
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A smartphone is a mobile phone with advanced computing capabilities. It typically has a touchscreen interface, allowing users to access a wide range of applications and services, such as web browsing, email, and social media, as well as multimedia playback and streaming.

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High Bandwidth Memory (HBM) is a type of computer memory interface that uses a 3D-stacked synchronous DRAM (dynamic random access memory) architecture. It's designed to offer significantly higher bandwidth and lower power consumption compared to traditional DDR (Double Data Rate) memory, making it suitable for applications like AI, high-performance computing, and graphic
LED  OLED 유기발광 다이오드    https://namu.wiki/w/OLED


불루투스 와이파이 에어드롭은 어떻게 다른 걸까?    https://canadakorea.ca/bbs/board.php?bo_table=cki_it&wr_id=37

The main difference between a CPU (Central Processing Unit) and a GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) lies in their architecture and purpose. CPUs are general-purpose processors that handle various tasks, while GPUs are specialized for complex visual and mathematical calculations, according to Lenovo.

At the heart of every computer lies the CPU. A generalized processing unit handles the operating system and general tasks such as firewalls and web access. Thus, the memory it uses is also a generalized one (System RAM). GPUs are specialized devices that handle complex, resource-intensive operations.


How much CPU do I need?
AI Overview
The number of CPU cores you need depends on your primary use case and budget. For everyday computing, a processor with 4-6 cores is generally sufficient. If you're into gaming, content creation, or other demanding applications, a processor with more cores (8 or more) might be beneficial.
Here's a more detailed breakdown:

How much GPU do I need?
AI Overview
To determine how much GPU you need, consider your primary use case and desired performance levels. For 1080p gaming and basic tasks, 4GB of VRAM might suffice, while 1440p gaming and moderate content creation may benefit from 6-8GB or more. For 4K gaming, 16GB is generally recommended, according to Tom's Hardware.

Is it better to have more RAM or CPU?
Upgrading your RAM can significantly improve multitasking and speed up application launches, while a faster processor increases the overall speed of calculations and general performance.


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스마트폰(smartphone)    https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%EB%A7%88%ED%8A%B8%ED%8F%B0
스마트폰    .https://namu.wiki/w/%EC%8A%A4%EB%A7%88%ED%8A%B8%ED%8F%B0  https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%EB%A7%88%ED%8A%B8%ED%8F%B0

Smartphone    https://en.namu.wiki/w/SMARTPHONE

Smartphone    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone
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2024년 1분기 스마트폰 공급업체 시장 점유율 순위:
삼성 20%
애플 17%
샤오미 14%
오포 8%
비보 7%
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.  Apple 28.38%  Samsung 22.82% . Xiaomi 10.62% 4  Vivo 5.67%    https://canadakorea.ca/bbs/board.php?bo_table=cki_eco&wr_id=95
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스마트폰 세계점유율 순위
https://www.google.ca/search?q=%EC%8A%A4%EB%A7%88%ED%8A%B8%ED%8F%B0+%EC%84%B8%EA%B3%84%EC%A0%90%EC%9C%A0%EC%9C%A8+%EC%88%9C%EC%9C%84&sca_esv=5d26048b6932b442&sxsrf=AHTn8zqmFJHbSNc-w3n4-pssjJpP4kYHDg%3A1747779559849&source=hp&ei=5_8saOOQMcfG0PEP6Z6b6Ac&iflsig=ACkRmUkAAAAAaC0N94ZKej3F8WRX6c-p48Vob45nz5lb&oq=%EC%8A%A4%EB%A7%88%ED%8A%B8%ED%8F%B0+%EC%84%B8%EA%B3%84%EC%A0%90%EC%9C%A0%EC%9C%A8&gs_lp=Egdnd3Mtd2l6IhzsiqTrp4jtirjtj7Ag7IS46rOE7KCQ7Jyg7JyoKgIIADIFECEYoAFI164BUABYt5ABcAh4AJABAJgBlQGgAdUQqgEEMTUuObgBAcgBAPgBAZgCIKACvxOoAgrCAgoQIxiABBgnGIoFwgIEECMYJ8ICCxAAGIAEGLEDGIMBwgILEC4YgAQYsQMYgwHCAhEQLhiABBixAxjRAxiDARjHAcICBRAAGIAEwgIIEAAYgAQYsQPCAgcQIxgnGOoCwgIFEC4YgATCAg4QLhiABBjHARiOBRivAcICCxAuGIAEGNEDGMcBwgILEC4YgAQYxwEYrwHCAgUQABjvBcICBBAAGB7CAgYQABgFGB7CAgYQABgIGB7CAgcQABiABBgNwgIIEAAYBRgNGB7CAggQABgIGA0YHpgDDPEFANBrhbolLVqSBwUyMi4xMKAH19cBsgcFMTQuMTC4B-cS&sclient=gws-wiz
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스마트폰(영어: smartphone)은 소프트웨어의 호환성이 높고, 전화 및 메시지 송·수신이 가능한, 휴대 전화와 컴퓨팅 기능을 하나로 통합한 모바일 장치다. 스마트폰은
 .
A smartphone is a mobile phone with advanced computing capabilities. It typically has a touchscreen interface, allowing users to access a wide range of applications and services, such as web browsing, email, and social media, as well as multimedia playback and streaming.

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1. Computer Abbreviations for Basic Components
AFA – All-Flash Array
BIOS – Basic Input Output System
BYTE – Storage Unit
CPU – Central Processing Unit
HDD – Hard Disk Drive
LCD – Liquid Crystal Display
OS – Operating System
PC – Personal Computer
PDF – Portable Document Format
RAID – Redundant Array of Independent Disks
RAM – Random Access Memory
RDMA – Remote Direct Memory Access
ROM – Read Only-Memory
SATA – Serial Advanced Technology Attachment
SSD – Solid State Drive
VGA – Video Graphics Array
2. List of Other Important Computer Abbreviations
COMPUTER – Commonly Operated Machine Used for Trade or Technology, Education and Research
AAC – Advanced Audio Coding
AI – Artificial Intelligence
ARPANET – Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
ALU – Arithmetic Logic Unit
ALGOL – Algorithmic Language
AOL – America Outline
API – Application Program Interface
APT – Automatically Programmed Tooling
ARP – Address Resolution Protocol
ASP – Active Server Pages
ATM – Asynchronous Transfer Mode
AUI – Attachment Unit Interface
AT – Advanced Technology
ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange
AVI – Audio Video Interleave
BCC – Blind Carbon Copy
BASIC – Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
BPS – Bytes Per Second
BCD – Binary Coded Decimal
B HTML – Broadcast Hypertext Markup Language
BIU – Bus Interface Unit
BMP – Bitmap
B2C – Business to Consumer
B2B – Business to Business
CUI – Character User Interface
CSS – Cascading Style Sheets
CPI – Clock/Cycle Per Instruction
CC – Carbon Copy
CAI – Computer-Aided Instruction
CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
CRT – Cathode Ray Tube
COBOL – Common Business Oriented Language
CISC – Complex Instructions Set Computers
CADD – Computer-Aided Design in Drafting
CAD – Computer-Aided Design
CD – Compact Disk
CD RW – Compact Disk Rewritable
CMD – Command
CD ROM – Compact Disk Read Only Memory
CROM – Computerised Range of Motion
CAM – Computer-Aided Manufacturing
DAT – Digital Audio Tape
DNA – Distributed Internet Architecture
DDR – Double Data Rate
DPI – Dots Per Inch
DDR-SDRAM – Double Data Rate-Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
DML – Data Manipulation Language
DOS – Disk Operating System
DOC – Date Optimising Computer
DHTML – Dynamics Hypertext Markup Language
Doc – Document
DVD – Digital Versatile Disk
DVI -Digital Visual Interface
DDL – Data Definition Language
DRAM – Dynamic Random Access Memory
DBMS – Database Management System
DVDR – Digital Versatile Disk Recordable
DVDRW – Digital Versatile Disk Rewritable
DVR – Digital Video Recorder
DARPANET – Defence Advanced Research Project Agency Network
E-Commerce – Electronic Commerce
EDGE – Enhanced Data Rate for GSM Evolution
EDI – Electronic Data Interchange
EDP – Electronic Data Processing
FS – File System
FTP – File Transfer Protocol
FORTRAN – Formula Translation
FDD – Floppy Disk Drive
FDC – Floppy Disk Controller
ENIAC – Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator
EDSAC – Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator
EDVAC – Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Compute
EB – EXAByte
EiB – EXBIByte
EROM – Erasable Read-Only Memory
EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
EEPROM – Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
E-Mail – Electronic Mail
EFS – Encrypted File System
FAT – Find Allocation Table
FPS -Frames Per Second
FLOPS – Floating Point Operations for Second
FM – Frequency Modulation
GB – GigaByte
GiB – GIBIByte
GIGO – Garbage in Garbage Out
GHz – Gigahertz
GIF – Graphics Interchangeable Format
GDI – Graphical Device Into
GPRS – General Packet Radio Service
GUI – Graphical User Interface
GBPS – Gigabytes/Gigabits Per Second
3GP – 3rd Generation Project
3GPP – 3rd Generation Partnership Project
GML – Geography Markup Language
GSM – Global System For Mobile Communication
IBM – International Business Machines
IC – Integrated Circuit
IO – Input Output
IOP – Input Output Processor
IPV6 – Internet Protocol Version 6
IPV4 – Internet Protocol Version 4
IP – Internet Protocol
INFO – Information
HDMI – High Definition Multimedia Interface
HTTPS – Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
HD – Hard Disk
HDD – Hard Disk Drive
HPC – Handheld Personal Computer
HP – Hewlett Packard/Horsepower
INTEL – Integrated Electronics
IMAP – Internet Message Access Protocol
ISO – International Organisation for Standardisation
HSDPA – High-speed Downlink Packet Access
ICT – Information Communication Technology
IT – Information Technology
MIPS – Million Instructions for Second
MHz – Megahertz
MBPS – Megabits/Megabytes per Second
MB – Motherboard/Megabyte
MAN – Metropolitan Area Network
LLL – Low-level Language
Kbps – Kilobits/Kilobytes per Second
KBD – Keyboard
KB – Kilobyte
JSP – Java Server Page
JS – JavaScript
JPEG – Joint Photographic Expert Group
JAD – Job Application Descriptor/Development
J2EE – Java 2 Platform Enterprise Edition
JAR – Java Archive
MIME – Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions
MICR – Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
 MPEG – Motion Picture Experts Group
Mp3 – MPEG Audio Layer 3
Mp4 – MPEG-4 AVC
NAT – Network Address Translation
NIC – Network Interface Card
NIIT – National Institute of Information Technology
NTP – Network Time Protocol
NTFS – New Technology File System
OMR – Optical Mark Reader/Recognition
OOP – Object-Oriented Programming
OpenGL – Open Graphics Library
OSI – Open Systems Interconnection
PHP – Hypertext Preprocessor
PB – PetaByte
PiB – PebiByte
PNG – Portable Network
PNP – Plug and Play
PDA – Personal Digital
PDU – Protocol Data Unit/Power Distribution Unit
PAN – Personal Area Network
PROM – Programmable Read-Only Memory
PCI – Peripheral Component Interconnect
POST – Power on Self Test
PSU – Power Supply Unit
PING – Packet Internet/Internetwork Groper
RDBMS – Relational Database Management System
RIP – Routing Information to Protocol
RPM – Revolutions Per Minute
SMPS – Switch Mode Power Supply
SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SRAM – Static Random Access Memory
SIM – Subscriber Identity Module
SAM – Software Asset Management/Sequential Access Method
SNAP – Subnetwork Access Protocol
SNOBOL – String Oriented Symbolic Language
SIU – Serial Interface Unit
SW – Software
SMS – Short Message Services
SQL – Structured Query
TB – Terabyte
TiB – Tebibyte
TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
TBPS – Terabytes Per Second
TAPI – Telephony Application Programming Interface
TXT – Text
UNIVAC – Universal Automatic Computer
UHF – Ultra High Frequency
UMTS – Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
VAN – Value Added Network
UPS – Uninterruptible Power Supply
UI – User Interface
VDU – Visual Display Unit
VIRUS – Vital Information Resource Under Seized
VCD – Video Compact Disk
VHF – Very High Frequency
VOIP – VoiceOver Internet Protocol
VRAM – Video Random Access Memory
VPN – Virtual Private Network
WAN – Wide Area Network
WAP – Wireless Application Protocol
WORM – Write Once Read Many
WWW – World Wide Web
WBMP – Wireless Bitmap Image
WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network
WMV – Windows Media Video
WML – Wireless Markup Language
WMA – Windows Media Audio
WINS – Windows Internet Name Service
XT – Extended Technology
XMF – Extensible Music File
XML – Extensible Markup Language
XMS – Extended Memory Specification
XHTML – Extensible Hypertext Markup Language
XSL – Extensible Style Language
Yahoo – Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle
YB – Yottabyte
YiB – Yobibyte
ZiB – ZebiByte
ZB – Zetta Byte
3. Computer Short Forms Related to Internet and Network
DNS – Domain Name Server
FTP – File Transport Protocol
HTML – HyperText Markup Language
HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol
IP – Internet Protocol
ISP – Internet Service Provider
LAN – Local Area Network
PPP – Point to Point Protocol
SEO – Search Engine Optimisation
URL -Uniform Resource Locator
USB – Universal Serial Bus
VR – Virtual Reality
VRML – Virtual Reality Mark-up Language
Conclusion:
With the growing use of computers for everyday things, it has become really important to gain knowledge about its components. There are various computer abbreviations which should be known to all as it helps the users to work with computers more easily. It is important to know the list of computer abbreviations and the full forms of those abbreviations as it helps in several competitive exams. There are computer short forms for data storage, internet, connectivity, network and more. Some computer abbreviations are technical, while the others are very basic and common. Computer abbreviations exist f
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D램과 낸드플래시(Nand Flash)의 차이 쉽게 정리 및 비교
https://donmyoung.tistory.com/entry/DRAM-NAND-Comparing

A central processing unit, also called a central processor, main processor or just processor, is the electronic circuitry that executes instructions comprising a computer program. The CPU perform…

NAND는 메모리에 정보를 저장하고, 전원이 꺼져도 지속적으로 정보를 유지하기 때문에 비휘발성 메모리입니다. 정리: 메모리반도체는 주로 DRAM과 NAND로 나누어지게 됩니다.Mar 29, 2018

DRAM (dynamic random access memory)--SRAM--NAND -****CPU--Central processing unit
동적 램
D램 [Dynamic Random Access Memory, 동적 메모리] 용량이 크고 속도가 빠르기 때문에 컴퓨터의 주력 메모리로 사용되는 램.May 22, 2013
동적 램(動的 RAM, 순화어: 동적 막기억장치) 또는 디램(DRAM, Dynamic random-access memory)은 임의 접근 기억 장치(random-access memory)의 한 종류로 정보를 .
임의 접근 기억 장치의 한 종류
동적 램 또는 디램은 임의 접근 기억 장치의 한 종류로 정보를 구성하는 개개의 비트를 각기 분리된 축전기에 저장하는 기억 장치이다. 각각의 축전기가 담고 있는 전자의 수에 따라 비트의 1과 0을 나타내지만 결국 축전기가 전자를 누전하므로 기억된 정보를 잃게 된다. 이를 방지하기 위해 기억 장치의 내용을 일정 시간마다 재생시켜야 되는 것을 일컬어 ‘동적’이란…

위키백과
DRAM 이란 휘발성 메모리를 말합니다. 전원을 공급해 주어야 데이터들이 유지되는 메모리입니다. 전원 공급이 중단된다면 데이터들은 날아가는 것이죠. 또한 DRAM 을 풀어서 해석하자면 Dynamic Random Access Momory 로 ‘ 동적 임의 접근 기억 장치 ’ 입니다. 먼저 아래의 DRAM 구조를 보고 용어에 대해 하나하나 설명해 드리겠습니다.

플래시 메모리는 전기적으로 데이터를 지우고 다시 기록할 수 있는 비휘발성 컴퓨터 기억 장치를 말한다. EEPROM과 다르게 여러 구역으로 구성된 블록 안에서 지우고 쓸 수 있다. 이제는 플래시 메모리의 가격…
위키백과


What replaced DRAM?
We already have alternatives for every single individual characteristic of DRAM. SRAM is faster, Optane is higher density, MRAM uses less power, and NAND costs far less per gigabyte.Jan 17, 2020

What Does Gigabyte (GB or GByte) Mean? A gigabyte (GB or GByte) is a data measurement unit for digital computer or media storage equal to one billion (1,000,000,000) bytes or one thousand (1,000) megabytes (MB). The unit of measurement in storage capacity that follows it is the terabyte (TB), which equals 1,000 GB.May 28, 2021
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DRAM (dynamic random access memory)
https://www.techtarget.com/searchstorage/definition/DRAM

Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is a type of semiconductor memory that is typically used for the data or program code needed by a computer processor to function. DRAM is a common type of random access memory (RAM) that is used in personal computers (PCs), workstations and servers. Random access allows the PC processor to access any part of the memory directly rather than having to proceed sequentially from a starting place. RAM is located close

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit

Central processing unit - Wikipediahttps://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Central_processing_unit
cpu from en.wikipedia.org
A central processing unit (CPU), also called a central processor, main processor or just processor, is the electronic circuitry that executes instructions ...
‎CPU (disambiguation) · ‎Processor (computing) · ‎Intel DX2 · ‎Processor design


People also ask
What is CPU in a computer?
A Central Processing Unit or CPU is electronic machinery that carries out instructions from programs that allows a computer or other device to perform its tasks.
A central processing unit (CPU), also called a central processor, main processor or just processor, is the electronic circuitry that executes instructions comprising a computer program. The CPU performs basic arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions in the program. This contrasts with external components such as main memory and I/O circuitry,[1] and specialized processors such as graphics processing units (GPUs).

The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over time, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal components of a CPU include the arithmetic–logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations, processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from memory), decoding and execution (of instructions) by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers and other components.

Most modern CPUs are implemented on integrated circuit (IC) microprocessors, with one or more CPUs on a single IC chip. Microprocessor chips with multiple CPUs are multi-core processors. The individual physical CPUs, processor cores, can also be multithreaded to create additional virtual or logical CPUs.[2]

An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC).

Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit considered central. Virtual CPUs are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.[3]


Contents
1 History
1.1 Transistor CPUs
1.2 Small-scale integration CPUs
1.3 Large-scale integration CPUs
1.4 Microprocessors
2 Operation
2.1 Fetch
2.2 Decode
2.3 Execute
3 Structure and implementation
3.1 Control unit
3.2 Arithmetic logic unit
3.3 Address generation unit
3.4 Memory management unit (MMU)
3.5 Cache
3.6 Clock rate
3.7 Clockless CPUs
3.8 Voltage regulator module
3.9 Integer range
3.10 Parallelism
3.10.1 Instruction-level parallelism
3.10.2 Task-level parallelism
3.10.3 Data parallelism
3.11 Hardware performance counter
4 Virtual CPUs
5 Performance
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
History
Main article: History of general-purpose CPUs

EDVAC, one of the first stored-program computers
Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be physically rewired to perform different tasks, which caused these machines to be called "fixed-program computers".[4] The "central processing unit" term has been in use since as early as 1955.[5][6] Since the term "CPU" is generally defined as a device for software (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer.

The idea of a stored-program computer had been already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly's ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner.[7] On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. It was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949.[8] EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer.[9] This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task.[10] With von Neumann's design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. EDVAC, was not the first stored-program computer, the Manchester Baby which was a small-scale experimental stored-program computer, ran its first program on 21 June 1948[11] and the Manchester Mark 1 ran its first program during the night of 16–17 June 1949.[12]

Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger and sometimes distinctive computer.[13] However, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers.[14] Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles[15] to cellphones,[16] and sometimes even in toys.[17][18]

While von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, and the design became known as the von Neumann architecture, others before him, such as Konrad Zuse, had suggested and implemented similar ideas.[19] The so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC,[20][21] also used a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory.[22] The key difference between the von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both.[23] Most modern CPUs are primarily von Neumann in design, but CPUs with the Harvard architecture are seen as well, especially in embedded applications; for instance, the Atmel AVR microcontrollers are Harvard architecture processors.[24]

Relays and vacuum tubes (thermionic tubes) were commonly used as switching elements;[25][26] a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches. Vacuum-tube computers such as EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the (slower, but earlier) Harvard Mark I failed very rarely.[6] In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems. Most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, limited largely by the speed of the switching devices they were built with.[27]

Transistor CPUs

IBM PowerPC 604e processor
Main article: Transistor computer
The design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices. The first such improvement came with the advent of the transistor. Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable and fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes and relays.[28] With this improvement, more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete (individual) components.

In 1964, IBM introduced its IBM System/360 computer architecture that was used in a series of computers capable of running the same programs with different speed and performance.[29] This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer. To facilitate this improvement, IBM used the concept of a microprogram (often called "microcode"), which still sees widespread usage in modern CPUs.[30] The System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer market for decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern computers like the IBM zSeries.[31][32] In 1965, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets, the PDP-8.[33]


Fujitsu board with SPARC64 VIIIfx processors
Transistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors. Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay.[34] The increased reliability and dramatically increased speed of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time); CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were easily obtained during this period.[35] Additionally, while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) vector processors began to appear.[36] These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc and Fujitsu Ltd.[36]

Small-scale integration CPUs

CPU, core memory and external bus interface of a DEC PDP-8/I, made of medium-scale integrated circuits
During this period, a method of manufacturing many interconnected transistors in a compact space was developed. The integrated circuit (IC) allowed a large number of transistors to be manufactured on a single semiconductor-based die, or "chip". At first, only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as NOR gates were miniaturized into ICs.[37] CPUs based on these "building block" ICs are generally referred to as "small-scale integration" (SSI) devices. SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo Guidance Computer, usually contained up to a few dozen transistors. To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs.[38]

IBM's System/370, follow-on to the System/360, used SSI ICs rather than Solid Logic Technology discrete-transistor modules.[39][40] DEC's PDP-8/I and KI10 PDP-10 also switched from the individual transistors used by the PDP-8 and PDP-10 to SSI ICs,[41] and their extremely popular PDP-11 line was originally built with SSI ICs but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical.

Large-scale integration CPUs
Lee Boysel published influential articles, including a 1967 "manifesto", which described how to build the equivalent of a 32-bit mainframe computer from a relatively small number of large-scale integration circuits (LSI).[42][43] The only way to build LSI chips, which are chips with a hundred or more gates, was to build them using a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) semiconductor manufacturing process (either PMOS logic, NMOS logic, or CMOS logic). However, some companies continued to build processors out of bipolar transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips because bipolar junction transistors were faster than MOS chips up until the 1970s (a few companies such as Datapoint continued to build processors out of TTL chips until the early 1980s).[43] In the 1960s, MOS ICs were slower and initially considered useful only in applications that required low power.[44][45] Following the development of silicon-gate MOS technology by Federico Faggin at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968, MOS ICs largely replaced bipolar TTL as the standard chip technology in the early 1970s.[46]

As the microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, decreasing the number of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU. MSI and LSI ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands. By 1968, the number of ICs required to build a complete CPU had been reduced to 24 ICs of eight different types, with each IC containing roughly 1000 MOSFETs.[47] In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits.[48]

Microprocessors
Main article: Microprocessor

Die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor (actual size: 12 × 6.75 mm) in its packaging

Intel Core i5 CPU on a Vaio E series laptop motherboard (on the right, beneath the heat pipe)

Inside of a laptop, with the CPU removed from socket
Since microprocessors were first introduced they have almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods. The first commercially available microprocessor, made in 1971, was the Intel 4004, and the first widely used microprocessor, made in 1974, was the Intel 8080. Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software. Combined with the advent and eventual success of the ubiquitous personal computer, the term CPU is now applied almost exclusively[a] to microprocessors. Several CPUs (denoted cores) can be combined in a single processing chip.[49]

Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards.[50] Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one.[51] The overall smaller CPU size, as a result of being implemented on a single die, means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance.[52][53] This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz. Additionally, the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU many fold. This widely observed trend is described by Moore's law, which had proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity until 2016.[54][55]

While the complexity, size, construction and general form of CPUs have changed enormously since 1950,[56] the basic design and function has not changed much at all. Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored-program machines.[57][b] As Moore's law no longer holds, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology. Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant.[59][60] These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer, as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model.

Operation
The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions that is called a program. The instructions to be executed are kept in some kind of computer memory. Nearly all CPUs follow the fetch, decode and execute steps in their operation, which are collectively known as the instruction cycle.

After the execution of an instruction, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter. If a jump instruction was executed, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to and program execution continues normally. In more complex CPUs, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded and executed simultaneously. This section describes what is generally referred to as the "classic RISC pipeline", which is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontrollers). It largely ignores the important role of CPU cache, and therefore the access stage of the pipeline.

Some instructions manipulate the program counter rather than producing result data directly; such instructions are generally called "jumps" and facilitate program behavior like loops, conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and existence of functions.[c] In some processors, some other instructions change the state of bits in a "flags" register. These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations. For example, in such processors a "compare" instruction evaluates two values and sets or clears bits in the flags register to indicate which one is greater or whether they are equal; one of these flags could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow.

Fetch
Fetch involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory. The instruction's location (address) in program memory is determined by the program counter (PC; called the "instruction pointer" in Intel x86 microprocessors), which stores a number that identifies the address of the next instruction to be fetched. After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction so that it will contain the address of the next instruction in the sequence.[d] Often, the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned. This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below).

Decode
Further information: Instruction set architecture § Instruction encoding
The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory determines what the CPU will do. In the decode step, performed by binary decoder circuitry known as the instruction decoder, the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU.

The way in which the instruction is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA).[e] Often, one group of bits (that is, a "field") within the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation is to be performed, while the remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required for the operation, such as the operands. Those operands may be specified as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as the location of a value that may be a processor register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode.

In some CPU designs the instruction decoder is implemented as a hardwired, unchangeable binary decoder circuit. In others, a microprogram is used to translate instructions into sets of CPU configuration signals that are applied sequentially over multiple clock pulses. In some cases the memory that stores the microprogram is rewritable, making it possible to change the way in which the CPU decodes instructions.

Execute
After the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed. Depending on the CPU architecture, this may consist of a single action or a sequence of actions. During each action, control signals electrically enable or disable various parts of the CPU so they can perform all or part of the desired operation. The action is then completed, typically in response to a clock pulse. Very often the results are written to an internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions. In other cases results may be written to slower, but less expensive and higher capacity main memory.

For example, if an addition instruction is to be executed, registers containing operands (numbers to be summed) are activated, as are the parts of the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that perform addition. When the clock pulse occurs, the operands flow from the source registers into the ALU, and the sum appears at its output. On subsequent clock pulses, other components are enabled (and disabled) to move the output (the sum of the operation) to storage (e.g., a register or memory). If the resulting sum is too large (i.e., it is larger than the ALU's output word size), an arithmetic overflow flag will be set, influencing the next operation.

Structure and implementation
See also: Processor design

Block diagram of a basic uniprocessor-CPU computer. Black lines indicate data flow, whereas red lines indicate control flow; arrows indicate flow directions.
Hardwired into a CPU's circuitry is a set of basic operations it can perform, called an instruction set. Such operations may involve, for example, adding or subtracting two numbers, comparing two numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program. Each instruction is represented by a unique combination of bits, known as the machine language opcode. While processing an instruction, the CPU decodes the opcode (via a binary decoder) into control signals, which orchestrate the behavior of the CPU. A complete machine language instruction consists of an opcode and, in many cases, additional bits that specify arguments for the operation (for example, the numbers to be summed in the case of an addition operation). Going up the complexity scale, a machine language program is a collection of machine language instructions that the CPU executes.

The actual mathematical operation for each instruction is performed by a combinational logic circuit within the CPU's processor known as the arithmetic–logic unit or ALU. In general, a CPU executes an instruction by fetching it from memory, using its ALU to perform an operation, and then storing the result to memory. Beside the instructions for integer mathematics and logic operations, various other machine instructions exist, such as those for loading data from memory and storing it back, branching operations, and mathematical operations on floating-point numbers performed by the CPU's floating-point unit (FPU).[61]

Control unit
Main article: Control unit
The control unit (CU) is a component of the CPU that directs the operation of the processor. It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic and logic unit and input and output devices how to respond to the instructions that have been sent to the processor.

It directs the operation of the other units by providing timing and control signals. Most computer resources are managed by the CU. It directs the flow of data between the CPU and the other devices. John von Neumann included the control unit as part of the von Neumann architecture. In modern computer designs, the control unit is typically an internal part of the CPU with its overall role and operation unchanged since its introduction.[62]

Arithmetic logic unit
Main article: Arithmetic logic unit

Symbolic representation of an ALU and its input and output signals
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit within the processor that performs integer arithmetic and bitwise logic operations. The inputs to the ALU are the data words to be operated on (called operands), status information from previous operations, and a code from the control unit indicating which operation to perform. Depending on the instruction being executed, the operands may come from internal CPU registers, external memory, or constants generated by the ALU itself.

When all input signals have settled and propagated through the ALU circuitry, the result of the performed operation appears at the ALU's outputs. The result consists of both a data word, which may be stored in a register or memory, and status information that is typically stored in a special, internal CPU register reserved for this purpose.

Address generation unit
Main article: Address generation unit
Address generation unit (AGU), sometimes also called address computation unit (ACU),[63] is an execution unit inside the CPU that calculates addresses used by the CPU to access main memory. By having address calculations handled by separate circuitry that operates in parallel with the rest of the CPU, the number of CPU cycles required for executing various machine instructions can be reduced, bringing performance improvements.

While performing various operations, CPUs need to calculate memory addresses required for fetching data from the memory; for example, in-memory positions of array elements must be calculated before the CPU can fetch the data from actual memory locations. Those address-generation calculations involve different integer arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, modulo operations, or bit shifts. Often, calculating a memory address involves more than one general-purpose machine instruction, which do not necessarily decode and execute quickly. By incorporating an AGU into a CPU design, together with introducing specialized instructions that use the AGU, various address-generation calculations can be offloaded from the rest of the CPU, and can often be executed quickly in a single CPU cycle.

Capabilities of an AGU depend on a particular CPU and its architecture. Thus, some AGUs implement and expose more address-calculation operations, while some also include more advanced specialized instructions that can operate on multiple operands at a time. Some CPU architectures include multiple AGUs so more than one address-calculation operation can be executed simultaneously, which brings further performance improvements due to the superscalar nature of advanced CPU designs. For example, Intel incorporates multiple AGUs into its Sandy Bridge and Haswell microarchitectures, which increase bandwidth of the CPU memory subsystem by allowing multiple memory-access instructions to be executed in parallel.

Memory management unit (MMU)
Main article: Memory management unit
Many microprocessors (in smartphones and desktop, laptop, server computers) have a memory management unit, translating logical addresses into physical RAM addresses, providing memory protection and paging abilities, useful for virtual memory. Simpler processors, especially microcontrollers, usually don't include an MMU.

Cache
A CPU cache[64] is a hardware cache used by the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer to reduce the average cost (time or energy) to access data from the main memory. A cache is a smaller, faster memory, closer to a processor core, which stores copies of the data from frequently used main memory locations. Most CPUs have different independent caches, including instruction and data caches, where the data cache is usually organized as a hierarchy of more cache levels (L1, L2, L3, L4, etc.).

All modern (fast) CPUs (with few specialized exceptions[f]) have multiple levels of CPU caches. The first CPUs that used a cache had only one level of cache; unlike later level 1 caches, it was not split into L1d (for data) and L1i (for instructions). Almost all current CPUs with caches have a split L1 cache. They also have L2 caches and, for larger processors, L3 caches as well. The L2 cache is usually not split and acts as a common repository for the already split L1 cache. Every core of a multi-core processor has a dedicated L2 cache and is usually not shared between the cores. The L3 cache, and higher-level caches, are shared between the cores and are not split. An L4 cache is currently uncommon, and is generally on dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), rather than on static random-access memory (SRAM), on a separate die or chip. That was also the case historically with L1, while bigger chips have allowed integration of it and generally all cache levels, with the possible exception of the last level. Each extra level of cache tends to be bigger and be optimized differently.

Other types of caches exist (that are not counted towards the "cache size" of the most important caches mentioned above), such as the translation lookaside buffer (TLB) that is part of the memory management unit (MMU) that most CPUs have.

Caches are generally sized in powers of two: 2, 8, 16 etc. KiB or MiB (for larger non-L1) sizes, although the IBM z13 has a 96 KiB L1 instruction cache.[65]

Clock rate
Main article: Clock rate
Most CPUs are synchronous circuits, which means they employ a clock signal to pace their sequential operations. The clock signal is produced by an external oscillator circuit that generates a consistent number of pulses each second in the form of a periodic square wave. The frequency of the clock pulses determines the rate at which a CPU executes instructions and, consequently, the faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU will execute each second.

To ensure proper operation of the CPU, the clock period is longer than the maximum time needed for all signals to propagate (move) through the CPU. In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst-case propagation delay, it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the "edges" of the rising and falling clock signal. This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component-count perspective. However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster. This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism (see below).

However, architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs. For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal. Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit. This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the CPU to malfunction. Another major issue, as clock rates increase dramatically, is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU. The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time. In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state. Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does energy consumption, causing the CPU to require more heat dissipation in the form of CPU cooling solutions.

One method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called clock gating, which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components (effectively disabling them). However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low-power designs. One notable recent CPU design that uses extensive clock gating is the IBM PowerPC-based Xenon used in the Xbox 360; that way, power requirements of the Xbox 360 are greatly reduced.[66]

Clockless CPUs
Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether. While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs. While somewhat uncommon, entire asynchronous CPUs have been built without using a global clock signal. Two notable examples of this are the ARM compliant AMULET and the MIPS R3000 compatible MiniMIPS.[67]

Rather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous, such as using asynchronous ALUs in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains. While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts, it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations. This, combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties, makes them very suitable for embedded computers.[68]

Voltage regulator module
Main article: Voltage regulator module
Many modern CPUs have a die-integrated power managing module which regulates on-demand voltage supply to the CPU circuitry allowing it to keep balance between performance and power consumption.

Integer range
Every CPU represents numerical values in a specific way. For example, some early digital computers represented numbers as familiar decimal (base 10) numeral system values, and others have employed more unusual representations such as ternary (base three). Nearly all modern CPUs represent numbers in binary form, with each digit being represented by some two-valued physical quantity such as a "high" or "low" voltage.[g]


A six-bit word containing the binary encoded representation of decimal value 40. Most modern CPUs employ word sizes that are a power of two, for example 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits.
Related to numeric representation is the size and precision of integer numbers that a CPU can represent. In the case of a binary CPU, this is measured by the number of bits (significant digits of a binary encoded integer) that the CPU can process in one operation, which is commonly called word size, bit width, data path width, integer precision, or integer size. A CPU's integer size determines the range of integer values it can directly operate on.[h] For example, an 8-bit CPU can directly manipulate integers represented by eight bits, which have a range of 256 (28) discrete integer values.

Integer range can also affect the number of memory locations the CPU can directly address (an address is an integer value representing a specific memory location). For example, if a binary CPU uses 32 bits to represent a memory address then it can directly address 232 memory locations. To circumvent this limitation and for various other reasons, some CPUs use mechanisms (such as bank switching) that allow additional memory to be addressed.

CPUs with larger word sizes require more circuitry and consequently are physically larger, cost more and consume more power (and therefore generate more heat). As a result, smaller 4- or 8-bit microcontrollers are commonly used in modern applications even though CPUs with much larger word sizes (such as 16, 32, 64, even 128-bit) are available. When higher performance is required, however, the benefits of a larger word size (larger data ranges and address spaces) may outweigh the disadvantages. A CPU can have internal data paths shorter than the word size to reduce size and cost. For example, even though the IBM System/360 instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the System/360 Model 30 and Model 40 had 8-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical

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[반도체 용어 사전] 낸드 플래시 메모리

Jul 5, 2013 — 낸드 플래시 메모리 [NAND Flash Memory] 반도체의 셀이 직렬로 배열되어 있는 플래시 메모리의 한 종류. 플래시 메모리는 반도체 칩 내부의 전자회로

Sep 19, 2019 — V-NAND는 전하 누출로 인한 데이터 손상을 방지해야 할 필요가 없으므로 플래시 메모리는 더 효율적인 프로그램 알고리즘을 실행할 수 있다. 그리고
May 15, 2019 — 오늘은 디램과 낸드플래시는 어떠한 차이점을 갖는지, 두 디바이스를 서로 비교해보며 알아보는 시간을 갖도록 하겠습니다. 메모리의 스위칭 기능과
문장과 번역에 Nand 를 사용하는 예 · Storage Nand Flash 8GB. · 저장 낸드 섬광 8GB.

[반도체 특강] 디램(DRAM)과 낸드플래시(NAND Flash)의 차이
https://news.skhynix.co.kr/post/dram-and-nand-flash
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https://rress.tistory.com/141
약자로 된 컴퓨터 용어 정리하기 - Rolling Resshttps://rress.tistory.com › ...
. CPU = Central Processing Unit: 중앙처리장치.
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컴퓨터 영어: 필수 25가지 컴퓨터 용어로 영어 어휘 공부하기
가장 필수로 알아야 할 컴퓨터 관련 영어 단어에는 어떤 것들이 있을까요?

https://www.fluentu.com/blog/english-kor/%EC%BB%B4%ED%93%A8%ED%84%B0-%EC%9A%A9%EC%96%B4/
핵심 테크 용어 여러 개를 짧은 시간 안에 간단히 살펴보는 것을 원하는 여러분을 위해 오늘 이 시간을 준비했습니다.

아래는 영어 학습자들이 알아두면 좋은 필수 테크 용어이니 오늘 눈에 잘 익혀두시고, 21세기 현대 영어를 유창하게 말하는데 한 걸음 더 나아가 보세요.

Algorithm
(알고리즘)

algorithm은 일련의 명령어입니다. 컴퓨터 프로그래머들이 웹사이트나 앱 등 어떤 태스크를 수행하는 프로그램을 만들 때 이 알고리즘을 디자인합니다.

App
(앱)

한국에서는 애플리케이션 또는 앱이라고 하죠. 앱은 애플에 의해 대중화된 용어입니다. 스마트폰에서 사용할 수 있는 컴퓨터 프로그램을 가리키는 말입니다.

Play

Bite/Byte
(바이트)

데이터의 사이즈 단위를 말합니다. 아마 MB(메가바이트 = 1백만 바이트), GB(기가바이트 = 10억만 바이트)라는 바이트보다 더 큰 단위도 어디선가 보신 적이 있을 거예요. 이 용어는 주로 어떤 디바이스 전체 용량 중 차지하는 데이터 크기를 나타낼 때 씁니다.