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Ukraine
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Ukraine
Україна (Ukrainian)
Flag of Ukraine
Flag
Coat of arms of Ukraine
Coat of arms
Anthem: Державний Гімн України
Derzhavnyi Himn Ukrainy
"State Anthem of Ukraine"
1:20
Ukraine - disputed (orthographic projection).svg
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Location of Ukraine (green)
Occupied/annexed territories prior to the 2022 Russian invasion (light green)
Capital
and largest city
Kyiv
49°N 32°ECoordinates: 49°N 32°E
Official language
and national language Ukrainian[1]
Ethnic groups (2001)[2]
77.8% Ukrainians
17.3% Russians
4.9% Others
Religion (2018)[3]
87.3% Christianity
11.0% No religion
0.8% Others
0.9% Unanswered
Demonym(s) Ukrainian
Government Unitary semi-presidential republic
• President
Volodymyr Zelenskyy
• Prime Minister
Denys Shmyhal
• Chairman of the
Verkhovna Rada
Ruslan Stefanchuk
Legislature Verkhovna Rada
Formation
• Kievan Rus'
879
• Kingdom of Ruthenia
1199
• Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Ruthenia
1362
• Cossack Hetmanate
18 August 1649
• Ukrainian People's Republic
10 June 1917
• Declaration of independence of the Ukrainian People's Republic
22 January 1918
• West Ukrainian People's Republic
1 November 1918
• Act of Unity
22 January 1919
• Declaration of independence from Soviet Union
24 August 1991
• Independence referendum
1 December 1991
• Current constitution
28 June 1996
Area
• Total
603,628[4] km2 (233,062 sq mi) (45th)
• Water (%)
3.8[5]
Population
• January 2022 estimate
Neutral decrease 41,167,336[6]
(excluding Crimea) (36th)
• 2001 census
48,457,102[2]
• Density
73.8/km2 (191.1/sq mi) (115th)
GDP (PPP) 2021 estimate
• Total
Increase $588 billion[7]
• Per capita
Increase $14,330[7]
GDP (nominal) 2021 estimate
• Total
Increase $198 billion[7]
• Per capita
Increase $4,830[7]
Gini (2020) Positive decrease 25.6[8]
low
HDI (2021) Decrease 0.773[9]
high · 77th
Currency Hryvnia (₴) (UAH)
Time zone UTC+2[10] (EET)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+3 (EEST)
Driving side right
Calling code +380
ISO 3166 code UA
Internet TLD
.ua
.укр
Website
ukraine.ua
Ukraine (Ukrainian: Україна, romanized: Ukraïna, pronounced [ʊkrɐˈjinɐ] (listen)) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast.[a][11] Pre-war Ukraine covered approximately 600,000 square kilometres (230,000 sq mi),[b] and was the eighth-most populous country in Europe, with a population of around 41 million people.[c][6] It is also bordered by Belarus to the north; by Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary to the west; and by Romania and Moldova[d] to the southwest; with a coastline along the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov to the south and southeast.[e] Kyiv is the nation's capital and largest city. The country's national language is Ukrainian, and most people are also fluent in Russian.[14]
During the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture under the state of Kievan Rus', which emerged in the 9th century and was ultimately destroyed by the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. After the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia emerged the area was contested, divided, and ruled by a variety of external powers for the next 600 years; including the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Austrian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Tsardom of Russia. The Cossack Hetmanate emerged in central Ukraine in the 17th century, but was partitioned between Russia and Poland, and ultimately absorbed by the Russian Empire. After the Russian Revolution a Ukrainian national movement re-emerged, and formed the Ukrainian People's Republic in 1917. This short-lived state was forcibly reconstituted by the Bolsheviks into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which became a founding member of the Soviet Union in 1922. In the 1930s millions of Ukrainians were killed by the Holodomor, a Stalin-era man-made famine.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Ukraine regained independence and declared itself neutral,[15] forming a limited military partnership with the post-Soviet Commonwealth of Independent States, while also joining the Partnership for Peace with NATO in 1994. In 2013 a series of mass demonstrations, known as the Euromaidan, erupted across Ukraine, eventually escalating into the Revolution of Dignity in 2014, which led to the establishment of a new government and pro-Russian unrest. During this period, unmarked Russian troops invaded the Crimean Peninsula, which was later annexed by Russia; and pro-Russia unrest in Ukraine's Donbas culminated in Russia-backed separatists seizing territory throughout the region, sparking the War in Donbas. This series of events marked the beginning of the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War, and in a major escalation of the conflict in February 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine. Since the outbreak of war with Russia in 2014, Ukraine has continued to seek closer economic, political, and military ties with the Western world, including with the United States, European Union, and NATO.[16]
Ukraine is a unitary republic under a semi-presidential system and a developing country, ranking 77th on the Human Development Index. Ukraine is the poorest country in Europe by nominal GDP per capita,[17] and has high levels of corruption and poverty.[18][19] However, due to its extensive fertile land, pre-war Ukraine was one of the largest grain exporters in the world.[20][21] It is a founding member of the United Nations, as well as a member of the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization, the OSCE, and is currently in the process of joining the European Union.
Contents
1 Etymology and orthography
2 History
2.1 Early history
2.2 Golden Age of Kyiv
2.3 Foreign domination
2.4 Cossack Hetmanate
2.5 19th and early 20th century
2.6 Inter-war Ukraine
2.7 World War II
2.8 Post–war Soviet Ukraine
2.9 Independence
3 Geography
3.1 Climate
3.2 Biodiversity
3.3 Urban areas
4 Politics
4.1 Constitution
4.2 President, parliament and government
4.3 Courts and law enforcement
4.4 Foreign relations
4.5 Armed forces
4.6 Administrative divisions
5 Economy
5.1 Agriculture
5.2 Transport
5.3 Energy
5.4 Information technology
6 Demographics
6.1 Language
6.2 Diaspora
6.3 Religion
6.4 Health
6.5 Education
6.6 Regional differences
7 Culture
7.1 Literature
7.2 Architecture
7.3 Weaving and embroidery
7.4 Music
7.5 Media
7.6 Sport
7.7 Cuisine
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Print sources
11.1 Reference books
11.2 Recent (since 1991)
11.3 History
12 External links
Etymology and orthography
Main article: Name of Ukraine
The name of Ukraine probably comes from the old Slavic term for "borderland",[22] as does the word krajina.
In the English-speaking world during most of the 20th century, Ukraine (whether independent or not) was referred to as "the Ukraine".[23] This is because the word ukraina means "borderland"[24] so the definite article would be natural in the English language; this is similar to "Nederlanden", which means "low lands" and is rendered in English as "the Netherlands".[25] However, since Ukraine's declaration of independence in 1991, this usage has become politicised and is now rarer, and style guides advise against its use.[26][27] US ambassador William Taylor said that using "the Ukraine" implies disregard for Ukrainian sovereignty.[28] The official Ukrainian position is that "the Ukraine" is incorrect, both grammatically and politically.[29]
History
Main article: History of Ukraine
Early history
A gold Scythian neckpiece, from a royal kurgan in Pokrov (4th century BC).
Settlement by modern humans in Ukraine and its vicinity dates back to 32,000 BC, with evidence of the Gravettian culture in the Crimean Mountains.[30][31] By 4,500 BC, the Neolithic Cucuteni–Trypillia culture was flourishing in wide areas of modern Ukraine, including Trypillia and the entire Dnieper-Dniester region. Ukraine is also considered to be the likely location of the first domestication of the horse.[32][33][34][35] During the Iron Age, the land was inhabited by Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians.[36] Between 700 BC and 200 BC it was part of the Scythian kingdom.[37]
From the 6th century BC, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine colonies were established on the north-eastern shore of the Black Sea, such as at Tyras, Olbia, and Chersonesus. These thrived into the 6th century AD. The Goths stayed in the area, but came under the sway of the Huns from the 370s. In the 7th century, the territory that is now eastern Ukraine was the centre of Old Great Bulgaria. At the end of the century, the majority of Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions, and the Khazars took over much of the land.[38]
In the 5th and 6th centuries, the Early Slavic, Antes people lived in Ukraine. The Antes were the ancestors of Ukrainians: White Croats, Severians, Eastern Polans, Drevlyans, Dulebes, Ulichians, and Tiverians. Migrations from the territories of present-day Ukraine throughout the Balkans established many South Slavic nations. Northern migrations, reaching almost to Lake Ilmen, led to the emergence of the Ilmen Slavs, Krivichs, and Radimichs, the groups ancestral to the Russians. Following an Avar raid in 602 and the collapse of the Antes Union, most of these peoples survived as separate tribes until the beginning of the second millennium.[39][need quotation to verify]
Golden Age of Kyiv
Main articles: Kievan Rus' and Kingdom of Ruthenia
The furthest extent of Kievan Rus', 1054–1132.
The establishment of the Kievan Rus' remains obscure and uncertain; there are at least three versions depending on interpretations of the chronicles.[40] In general, the state included much of present-day Ukraine, Belarus and the western part of European Russia.[41] According to the Primary Chronicle the Rus' elite and rulers initially consisted of Varangians from Scandinavia.[42] In 882, the pagan Prince Oleg (Oleh) conquered Kyiv from Askold and Dir and proclaimed it as the capital of the Rus'.[43] However, it is also believed that the East Slavic tribes along the southern parts of the Dnieper River were already in the process of forming a state independently.[44] In any case, the Varangians later assimilated into the Slavic population and became part of the first Rus' dynasty, the Rurik dynasty.[41] Kievan Rus' was composed of several principalities ruled by the interrelated Rurikid kniazes ("princes"), who often fought each other for possession of Kyiv.[45]
During the 10th and 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became the largest and most powerful state in Europe, a period known as its Golden Age.[46] It began with the reign of Vladimir the Great (980–1015), who turned Rus' toward Byzantine Christianity. During the reign of his son, Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054), Kievan Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power.[41] The state soon fragmented as the relative importance of regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule of Vladimir II Monomakh (1113–1125) and his son Mstislav (1125–1132), Kievan Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav's death, though ownership of Kyiv would still carry great prestige for decades.[47]
The 13th-century Mongol invasion devastated Kievan Rus' and Kyiv was completely destroyed in 1240.[48] On today's Ukrainian territory, the principalities of Halych and Volodymyr-Volynskyi arose, and were merged into the state of Galicia–Volhynia.[49] Daniel of Galicia, son of Roman the Great, re-united much of south-western Rus', including Volhynia, Galicia and the ancient capital of Kyiv. He was subsequently crowned by the papal archbishop as the first king of the newly created Kingdom of Ruthenia in 1253.[50]
Foreign domination
See also: Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Crimean Khanate, Ottoman Empire, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russian Empire
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth at its maximum extent in 1619. Poland and the Polish Crown exercised power over much of Ukraine since 1569.
In 1349, Ruthenia ceased to exist as an independent entity in the aftermath of the Galicia–Volhynia Wars, with its lands partitioned between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[51] From the mid-13th century to the late 1400s the Republic of Genoa founded numerous colonies in the Black Sea region of modern Ukraine and transformed these into large commercial centers headed by the consul, a representative of the Republic.[52] In 1430, the region of Podolia was incorporated into Poland and Ukraine became increasingly settled by Polish colonisers.[53] In 1441, Genghisid prince Haci I Giray founded the Crimean Khanate on the Crimean Peninsula and the surrounding steppes;[54] the Khanate orchestrated Tatar slave raids and took an estimated two million Ruthenian slaves.[55][56]
In 1569 the Union of Lublin established the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and most of the former Ruthenian lands were transferred from Lithuania to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, becoming de jure Polish territory. Under the pressures of Polonisation, many landed gentry of Ruthenia converted to Catholicism and joined the circles of the Polish nobility; others still joined the newly created Ruthenian Uniate Church.[57]
Cossack Hetmanate
Main article: Cossack Hetmanate
Deprived of native protectors among Rus nobility, the peasants and townspeople began turning for protection to the emerging Zaporozhian Cossacks. In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasi-state, the Zaporozhian Host, was formed by Dnieper Cossacks and Ruthenian peasants.[58] Poland exercised little real control over this population, but found the Cossacks to be useful against the Turks and Tatars,[59] and at times the two were allies in military campaigns.[60] However, the continued harsh enserfment of Ruthenian peasantry by Polish overlords and the suppression of the Orthodox Church alienated the Cossacks.[59] The latter did not shy from taking up arms against those they perceived as enemies and occupiers, including the Polish Catholic state with its local representatives.[61]
Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky established an independent Cossack state after the 1648 uprising against Poland.
In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led the largest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king, which enjoyed wide support from the local population.[62] Khmelnytsky founded the Cossack Hetmanate, which existed until 1764 (some sources claim until 1782).[63] After Khmelnytsky suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Berestechko in 1651, he turned to the Russian tsar for help. In 1654, Khmelnytsky was subject to the Pereiaslav Agreement, forming a military and political alliance with Russia that acknowledged loyalty to the Russian monarch.
After his death, the Hetmanate went through a devastating 30-year war amongst Russia, Poland, the Crimean Khanate, the Ottoman Empire, and Cossacks, known as "The Ruin" (1657-1686), for control of the Cossack Hetmanate. The "Treaty of Perpetual Peace" between Russia and Poland in 1686 divided the lands of the Cossack Hetmanate between them, reducing the portion over which Poland had claimed sovereignty to Ukraine west of the Dnieper river. In 1686, the Metropolitanate of Kyiv was annexed by the Moscow Patriarchate through a synodal letter of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Dionysius IV, thus placing the Metropolitanate of Kyiv under the authority of Moscow. An attempt to reverse the decline was undertaken by Cossack Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1639–1709), who ultimately defected to the Swedes in the Great Northern War (1700-1721) in a bid to get rid of Russian dependence,[64] but they were crushed in the Battle of Poltava (1709).[64]
Russia's victory over Charles XII of Sweden and his ally Ivan Mazepa at the Battle of Poltava (1709) destroyed Cossack autonomy.
The Hetmanate's autonomy was severely restricted since Poltava. In the years 1764–1781, Catherine the Great incorporated much of Central Ukraine into the Russian Empire, abolishing the Cossack Hetmanate and the Zaporozhian Sich, and was one of the people responsible for the suppression of the last major Cossack uprising, the Koliivshchyna.[65] After the annexation of Crimea by Russia in 1783, the newly acquired lands, now called Novorossiya, were opened up to settlement by Russians.[66] The tsarist autocracy established a policy of Russification, suppressing the use of the Ukrainian language and curtailing the Ukrainian national identity.[67] The western part of present-day Ukraine was subsequently split between Russia and Habsburg-ruled Austria after the fall of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795.
19th and early 20th century
Main articles: Southwestern Krai, Kharkov Governorate, and Chernigov Governorate
Further information: Ukraine during World War I, Ukraine after the Russian Revolution, Ukrainian War of Independence, and Ukrainian–Soviet War
Polish troops enter Kyiv in May 1920 during the Polish–Soviet War. Following the Peace of Riga signed on 18 March 1921, Poland took control of modern-day western Ukraine while Soviets took control of eastern and central Ukraine.
The 19th century saw the rise of Ukrainian nationalism. With growing urbanization and modernization and a cultural trend toward romantic nationalism, the Ukrainian intelligentsia committed to national rebirth and social justice emerged. The serf-turned-national-poet Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861) and political theorist Mykhailo Drahomanov (1841–1895) led the growing nationalist movement.[68][69] While conditions for its development in Austrian Galicia under the Habsburgs were relatively lenient,[70] the Russian part (known as Little Russia) faced severe restrictions, going as far as banning virtually all books from being published in Ukrainian in 1876.
Ukraine joined the Industrial Revolution later than most of Western Europe[71] due to the maintenance of serfdom until 1861. Other than near the newly discovered coal fields of the Donbas, and in some larger cities such as Odesa and Kyiv, Ukraine largely remained an agricultural and resource extraction economy.[72] The Austrian part of Ukraine was particularly destitute, which forced hundreds of thousands of peasants into emigration, who created the backbone of an extensive Ukrainian diaspora in countries such as Canada, the United States and Brazil.[73] Some of the Ukrainians settled in the Far East, too. According to the 1897 census, there were 223,000 ethnic Ukrainians in Siberia and 102,000 in Central Asia.[74] An additional 1.6 million emigrated to the east in the ten years after the opening of the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1906.[75] Far Eastern areas with an ethnic Ukrainian population became known as Green Ukraine.[76]
Ukraine plunged into turmoil with the beginning of World War I, and fighting on Ukrainian soil persisted until late 1921. Initually, the Ukrainians were split between Austria-Hungary, fighting for the Central Powers, though the vast majority served in the Imperial Russian Army, which was part of the Triple Entente, under Russia.[77] As the Russian Empire collapsed, the conflict evolved into the Ukrainian War of Independence, with Ukrainians fighting alongside, or against, the Red, White, Black and Green armies, with the Poles, (in Transcarpathia) Hungarians, and Germans also intervening at various times.
An attempt to create an independent state, the left-leaning Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR), was first announced by Mykhailo Hrushevsky, but the period was plagued by an extremely unstable political and military environment. It was first deposed in a coup d'état led by Pavlo Skoropadskyi, which yielded the Ukrainian State under the German protectorate, and the attempt to restore the UNR under the Directorate ultimately failed as the Ukrainian army was regularly overrun by other forces. The short-lived West Ukrainian People's Republic and Hutsul Republic also failed to join the rest of Ukraine.[78]
The result of the conflict was a partial victory for the Second Polish Republic, which annexed the Western Ukrainian provinces, as well as a larger-scale victory for the pro-Soviet forces, which succeeded in dislodging the remaining factions and eventually established the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Ukraine). Meanwhile, modern-day Bukovina was occupied by Romania and Carpathian Ruthenia was admitted to Czechoslovakia as an autonomous region.[79]
The conflict over the Ukraine, a part of the broader Russian Civil War, devastated the whole of the former Russian Empire, including eastern and central Ukraine. The fighting left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless in the former Russian Empire's territory. The eastern provinces were additionally impacted by a famine in 1921.[80][81]
Inter-war Ukraine
See also: Holodomor
A starved man on the streets of Kharkiv, 1933. Collectivization of crops and their confiscation by Soviet authorities led to a major famine in Soviet Ukraine known as the Holodomor.
In Poland, the government openly propagated anti-Ukrainian sentiment and restricted rights of people who declared Ukrainian nationality and belonged to the Eastern Orthodox Church.[82][83] In consequence, an underground Ukrainian nationalist and militant movement arose in the 1920s and 1930s, which gradually transformed into the Ukrainian Military Organization and later the Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).
Meanwhile, the recently constituted Soviet Ukraine became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. During the 1920s,[84] under the Ukrainisation policy pursued by the national Communist leadership of Mykola Skrypnyk, Soviet leadership at first encouraged a national renaissance in Ukrainian culture and language. Ukrainisation was part of the Soviet-wide policy of Korenisation (literally indigenisation), which was intended to promote the advancement of native peoples, their language and culture into the governance of their respective republics.
Around the same time, Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin instituted the New Economic Policy (NEP), which introduced a form of market socialism, allowing some private ownership of small and medium-sized productive enterprises, hoping to reconstruct the post-war Soviet Union that had been devastated by both WWI and later the civil war. The NEP was successful at restoring the formerly war-torn nation to pre-WWI levels of production and agricultural output by the mid-1920s, much of the latter based in Ukraine.[85] These policies attracted many prominent former UNR figures, including former UNR leader Hrushevsky, to return to Soviet Ukraine, where they were accepted, and participated in the advancement of Ukrainian science and culture.[86]
This period was cut short when Joseph Stalin became the leader of the USSR following Lenin's death. Stalin did away with the NEP in what became known as the Great Break. Starting from the late 1920s and now with a centrally planned economy, Soviet Ukraine took part in an industrialisation scheme which quadrupled its industrial output during the 1930s.
However, as a consequence of Stalin's new policy, the Ukrainian peasantry suffered from the programme of collectivization of agricultural crops. Collectivization was part of the first five-year plan and was enforced by regular troops and the secret police known as Cheka. Those who resisted were arrested and deported to gulags and work camps. As members of the collective farms were sometimes not allowed to receive any grain until unrealistic quotas were met, millions starved to death in a famine known as the Holodomor or the "Great Famine", which was recognized by some countries as an act of genocide perpetrated by Joseph Stalin and other Soviet notables.[87]
Following on the Russian Civil War, and collectivisation, the Great Purge, while killing Stalin's perceived political enemies, resulted in a profound loss of a new generation of Ukrainian intelligentsia, known today as the Executed Renaissance.[88]
World War II
See also: Eastern Front (World War II), Reichskommissariat Ukraine, and The Holocaust in Ukraine
The territorial evolution of the Ukrainian SSR, 1922–1954
Following the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, German and Soviet troops divided the territory of Poland. Thus, Eastern Galicia and Volhynia with their Ukrainian population became part of Ukraine. For the first time in history, the nation was united.[89][90] Further territorial gains were secured in 1940, when the Ukrainian SSR incorporated the northern and southern districts of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region from the territories the USSR forced Romania to cede, though it handed over the western part of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to the newly created Moldavian SSR. These territorial gains of the USSR were internationally recognized by the Paris peace treaties of 1947.[citation needed]
Marshal Timoshenko (born in the Budjak region) commanded numerous fronts throughout the war, including the Southwestern Front east of Kyiv in 1941.
German armies invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, initiating nearly four years of total war. The Axis initially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In the battle of Kyiv, the city was acclaimed as a "Hero City", because of its fierce resistance. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one-quarter of the Soviet Western Front) were killed or taken captive there, with many suffering severe mistreatment.[91][92] After its conquest, most of the Ukrainian SSR was organised within the Reichskommissariat Ukraine, with the intention of exploiting its resources and eventual German settlement. Some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the Soviet Union in 1939, hailed the Germans as liberators, but that did not last long as the Nazis made little attempt to exploit dissatisfaction with Stalinist policies.[93] Instead, the Nazis preserved the collective-farm system, carried out genocidal policies against Jews, deported millions of people to work in Germany, and began a depopulation program to prepare for German colonisation.[93] They blockaded the transport of food on the Dnieper River.[94]
Although the majority of Ukrainians fought in or alongside the Red Army and Soviet resistance,[95] in Western Ukraine an independent Ukrainian Insurgent Army movement arose (UPA, 1942). It was created as the armed forces of the underground Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).[96][97] Both organizations, the OUN and the UPA, supported the goal of an independent Ukrainian state on the territory with a Ukrainian ethnic majority. Although this brought conflict with Nazi Germany, at times the Melnyk wing of the OUN allied with the Nazi forces. From mid-1943 until the end of the war, the UPA carried out massacres of ethnic Poles in the Volhynia and Eastern Galicia regions, killing around 100,000 Polish civilians,[98] which brought reprisals.[99] These organized massacres were an attempt by the OUN to create a homogeneous Ukrainian state without a Polish minority living within its borders, and to prevent the post-war Polish state from asserting its sovereignty over areas that had been part of pre-war Poland.[100] After the war, the UPA continued to fight the USSR until the 1950s.[101][102] At the same time, the Ukrainian Liberation Army, another nationalist movement, fought alongside the Nazis.[103]
Kyiv suffered significant damage during World War II, and was occupied by the Germans from 19 September 1941 until 6 November 1943.
In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians who fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million[95] to 7 million;[104][c] half of the Pro-Soviet partisan guerrilla resistance units, which counted up to 500,000 troops in 1944, were also Ukrainian.[105] Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are unreliable, with figures ranging anywhere from 15,000 to as many as 100,000 fighters.[106][107]
The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on the Eastern Front.[108] By some estimates, 93% of all German casualties took place there.[109] The total losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during the war are estimated at 6 million,[110][111] including an estimated one and a half million Jews killed by the Einsatzgruppen,[112] sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.6 million Soviet troop losses,[113][114][115] 1.4 million were ethnic Ukrainians,[113][115][c][d] and general losses of the Ukrainian people in the war amounted to 40–44% of the total losses of the USSR.[116][better source needed] The Victory Day is celebrated as one of eleven Ukrainian national holidays.[117]
Post–war Soviet Ukraine
Further information: Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964), History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982), and History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)
Two future leaders of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev (left, pre-war CPSU chief in Ukraine) and Leonid Brezhnev (an engineer from Kamianske)
The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed.[118] The situation was worsened by a famine in 1946–1947, which was caused by a drought and the wartime destruction of infrastructure, killing at least tens of thousands of people.[111] In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations (UN),[119] part of a special agreement at the Yalta Conference, and, alongside Belarus, had voting rights in the UN even though they were not independent.[120][121] Moreover, Ukraine once more expanded its borders as it annexed Zakarpattia, and the population became much more homogenized due to post-war population transfers, most of which, as in the case of Germans and Crimean Tatars, were forced. As of 1 January 1953, Ukrainians were second only to Russians among adult "special deportees", comprising 20% of the total.[122]
Following the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the USSR, who began the policies of De-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw. During his term as head of the Soviet Union, Crimea was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR, formally as a friendship gift to Ukraine and for economic reasons.[123] This represented the final extension of Ukrainian territory and formed the basis for the internationally recognized borders of Ukraine to this day. Ukraine was one of the most important republics of the Soviet Union, which resulted in many top positions in the Soviet Union occupied by Ukrainians, including notably Leonid Brezhnev, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982. However, it was him and his appointee in Ukraine, Volodymyr Shcherbytsky, who presided over extensive Russification of Ukraine and who were instrumental in repressing a new generation of Ukrainian intellectuals known as the Sixtiers.[124]
By 1950, the republic had fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production.[125] Soviet Ukraine soon became a European leader in industrial production[126] and an important centre of the Soviet arms industry and high-tech research, though heavy industry still had an outsided influence.[127] The Soviet government invested in hydroelectric and nuclear power projects to cater to the energy demand that the development carried. On 26 April 1986, however, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history.[128]
Independence
See also: Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Modern history of Ukraine, Orange Revolution, Euromaidan, Revolution of Dignity, Russo-Ukrainian War, and 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
Ukrainian President Leonid Kravchuk and President of the Russian Federation Boris Yeltsin signed the Belavezha Accords, dissolving the Soviet Union, on 8 December 1991.
Mikhail Gorbachev pursued a policy of limited liberalization of public life, known as perestroika, and attempted to reform a stagnating economy. The latter failed, but the democratization of the Soviet Union fuelled nationalist and separatist tendencies among the ethnic minorities, including Ukrainians.[129] As part of the so-called parade of sovereignties, on 16 July 1990, the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine;[130] after a putsch of some Communist leaders in Moscow failed to depose Gorbachov, outright independence was proclaimed on 24 August 1991[131] and approved by 92% of the Ukrainian electorate in a referendum on 1 December.[132] Ukraine's new President, Leonid Kravchuk, went on to sign the Belavezha Accords and made Ukraine a founding member of the much looser Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS),[133] though Ukraine never became a full member of the latter as it did not ratify the agreement founding CIS.[134] These documents sealed the fate of the Soviet Union, which formally voted itself out of existence on 26 December.[135]
Ukraine was initially viewed as having favourable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union,[136] though it was one of the poorer Soviet republics by the end of the Soviet Union.[137] However, during its transition to the market economy, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than almost all of the other former Soviet Republics. During the recession, between 1991 and 1999, Ukraine lost 60% of its GDP[138][139] and suffered five-digit inflation rates.[140] The situation only stabilized well after the new currency, the hryvnia, fell sharply in late 1998 partially as a fallout from the Russian debt default earlier that year.[141] The legacy of the economic policies of the nineties was the mass privatization of state property that created a class of extremely powerful and rich individuals known as the oligarchs.[137] The country would then fall into sharp recessions as a result of the 2008 global financial crisis,[137] then the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2014,[142] and finally, the full-scale invasion of Russia in starting from 24 February 2022.[143] Ukraine's economy in general underperformed since the time independence came due to pervasive corruption and mismanagement,[144] which, particularly in the 1990s, led to protests and organized strikes.[145] The war with Russia impeded meaningful economic recovery in the 2010s,[146] while efforts to combat the COVID-19 pandemic, which arrived in 2020, were made much harder by low vaccination rates[147] and, later in the pandemic, by the ongoing invasion.[148]
Protesters at Independence Square on the first day of the Orange Revolution
From the political perspective, one of the defining features of the politics of Ukraine is that for most of the time, it has been divided along two issues: the relation between Ukraine, the West and Russia, and the classical left-right divide.[149] The first two presidents, Kravchuk and Leonid Kuchma, tended to balance the competing visions of Ukraine,[150] though Yushchenko and Yanukovych were generally pro-Western and pro-Russian, respectively. There were two major protests against Yanukovych: the Orange Revolution in 2004, when tens of thousands of people went in protest of election rigging in his favour (Yushchenko was eventually elected president), and another one in the winter of 2013/2014, when more gathered on the Euromaidan to oppose the Yanukovych's refusal to sign the European Union–Ukraine Association Agreement. By the end of the 2014 protests, he fled from Ukraine and was removed by the parliament in what is termed the Revolution of Dignity, but Russia refused to recognize the interim pro-Western government, calling it a junta and denouncing the events as a coup d'état sponsored by the United States.[151][152][153]
Even though Russia had signed the so-called Budapest memorandum in 1994 that said that Ukraine was to hand over nuclear weapons in exchange of security guarantees and those of territorial integrity, it reacted violently to these developments and started a war against its western neighbour. In late February and early March 2014, it annexed Crimea using its Navy in Sevastopol as well as the so-called little green men; after this succeeded, it then launched a proxy war in the Donbas via the breakaway Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic.[154] The first months of the conflict with the Russian-backed separatists were fluid, but Russian forces then started an open invasion in Donbas on 24 August 2014. Together they pushed back Ukrainian troops to the frontline established in February 2015, i.e. after Ukrainian troops withdrew from Debaltseve.[155] The conflict remained in a sort of a frozen state until the early hours of 24 February 2022,[156] when Russia proceeded with an ongoing invasion of Ukraine (euphemized in Russia as a "special military operation").[157] Russian troops now control about 20% of Ukraine's internationally recognized territory,[158] though Russia was not able to realize its stated objective of taking full control of the country.[159]
Current control of Ukraine by Russian troops
The military conflict with Russia shifted the government's policy towards the West. Shortly after Yanukovych fled Ukraine, the country signed the EU association agreement in June 2014, and its citizens were granted visa-free travel to the European Union three years later. In January 2019, the Orthodox Church of Ukraine was recognized as independent of Moscow, which reversed the 1686 decision of the patriarch of Constantinople and dealt a further blow to Moscow's influence in Ukraine.[160] Finally, amid a full-scale war with Russia, Ukraine was granted candidate status to the European Union on 23 June 2022.[161]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Ukraine
Topographic map of Ukraine (with borders and towns)
Ukraine is the second-largest European country, after Russia. Lying between latitudes 44° and 53° N, and longitudes 22° and 41° E., it is mostly in the East European Plain. Ukraine covers an area of 603,628 square kilometres (233,062 sq mi), with a coastline of 2,782 kilometres (1,729 mi).[46]
The landscape of Ukraine consists mostly of fertile plains (or steppes) and plateaus, crossed by rivers such as the Dnieper (Dnipro), Seversky Donets, Dniester and the Southern Bug as they flow south into the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov. To the southwest, the delta of the Danube forms the border with Romania. Ukraine's various regions have diverse geographic features ranging from the highlands to the lowlands. The country's only mountains are the Carpathian Mountains in the west, of which the highest is Hoverla at 2,061 metres (6,762 ft), and the Crimean Mountains, in the extreme south along the coast.[162]
Ukraine also has a number of highland regions such as the Volyn-Podillia Upland (in the west) and the Near-Dnipro Upland (on the right bank of Dnieper). To the east there are the south-western spurs of the Central Russian Upland over which runs the border with the Russian Federation. Near the Sea of Azov can be found the Donets Ridge and the Near Azov Upland. The snow melt from the mountains feeds the rivers and their waterfalls.
Significant natural resources in Ukraine include lithium,[163] natural gas,[164] kaolin,[164] timber[165] and an abundance of arable land.[166] Ukraine has many environmental issues.[167][168] Some regions lack adequate supplies of potable water.[169] Air and water pollution affects the country, as well as deforestation, and radiation contamination in the northeast stemming from the 1986 accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.[170]
Climate
Köppen climate classification.
Ukraine has a mostly temperate climate, except for the southern coast of Crimea which has a subtropical climate.[171] The climate is influenced by moderately warm, humid air from the Atlantic Ocean.[172] Average annual temperatures range from 5.5–7 °C (41.9–44.6 °F) in the north, to 11–13 °C (51.8–55.4 °F) in the south.[172] Precipitation is highest in the west and north and lowest in the east and southeast.[172] Western Ukraine, particularly in the Carpathian Mountains, receives around 120 centimetres (47.2 in) of precipitation annually, while Crimea and the coastal areas of the Black Sea receive around 40 centimetres (15.7 in).[172]
Water availability from the major river basins is expected to decrease due to climate change, especially in summer. This poses risks to the agricultural sector.[173] The negative impacts of climate change on agriculture are mostly felt in the south of the country, which has a steppe climate. In the north, some crops may be able to benefit from a longer growing season.[174] The World Bank has stated that Ukraine is highly vulnerable to climate change.[175]
Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of Ukraine
Ukraine contains six terrestrial ecoregions: Central European mixed forests, Crimean Submediterranean forest complex, East European forest steppe, Pannonian mixed forests, Carpathian montane conifer forests, and Pontic steppe.[176] There is somewhat more coniferous than deciduous forest.[177] The most densely forested area is Polisia in the northwest, with pine, oak, and birch.[177] There are 45,000 species of animal,[178] with approximately 385 endangered species listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine.[179] Internationally important wetlands cover over 7,000 square kilometres (2,700 sq mi), with the Danube Delta being important for conservation.[180][181]
Urban areas
Main article: List of cities in Ukraine
Ukraine has 457 cities, of which 176 are designated as oblast-class, 279 as smaller raion-class cities, and two as special legal status cities. There are also 886 urban-type settlements and 28,552 villages.[182]
Largest cities or towns in Ukraine
2021 [2]
Rank Name Region Pop. Rank Name Region Pop.
Kyiv
Kyiv
Kharkiv
Kharkiv 1 Kyiv Kyiv (city) 2,962,180 11 Luhansk Luhansk 399,559 Odesa
Odesa
Dnipro
Dnipro
2 Kharkiv Kharkiv 1,433,886 12 Vinnytsia Vinnytsia 370,601
3 Odesa Odesa 1,015,826 13 Makiivka Donetsk 340,337
4 Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk 980,948 14 Sevastopol Sevastopol (city) 340,297
5 Donetsk Donetsk 905,364 15 Simferopol Crimea 336,330
6 Zaporizhzhia Zaporizhzhia 722,713 16 Chernihiv Chernihiv 285,234
7 Lviv Lviv 721,510 17 Kherson Kherson 283,649
8 Kryvyi Rih Dnipropetrovsk 612,750 18 Poltava Poltava 283,402
9 Mykolaiv Mykolaiv 476,101 19 Khmelnytskyi Khmelnytskyi 274,582
10 Mariupol Donetsk 431,859 20 Cherkasy Cherkasy 272,651
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Ukraine, Government of Ukraine, and Elections in Ukraine
Further information: Russo-Ukrainian War and 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches.[183]
Constitution
Main article: Constitution of Ukraine
Chart of the political system of Ukraine
The Constitution of Ukraine was adopted and ratified at the 5th session of the Verkhovna Rada, the parliament of Ukraine, on 28 June 1996.[184] The constitution was passed with 315 ayes out of 450 votes possible (300 ayes minimum).[184] All other laws and other normative[clarification needed] legal acts of Ukraine must conform to the constitution. The right to amend the constitution through a special legislative procedure is vested exclusively in the parliament. The only body that may interpret the constitution and determine whether legislation conforms to it is the Constitutional Court of Ukraine. Since 1996, the public holiday Constitution Day is celebrated on 28 June.[185][186] On 7 February 2019, the Verkhovna Rada voted to amend the constitution to state Ukraine's strategic objectives as joining the European Union and NATO.[187]
President, parliament and government
Volodymyr Zelensky Official portrait.jpg Денис Шмигаль 2020 3 (cropped).jpg
Volodymyr Zelenskyy
President Denys Shmyhal
Prime Minister
The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and is the formal head of state.[188] Ukraine's legislative branch includes the 450-seat unicameral parliament, the Verkhovna Rada.[189] The parliament is primarily responsible for the formation of the executive branch and the Cabinet of Ministers, headed by the prime minister.[190] The president retains the authority to nominate the ministers of foreign affairs and of defence for parliamentary approval, as well as the power to appoint the prosecutor general and the head of the Security Service.[191]
Laws, acts of the parliament and the cabinet, presidential decrees, and acts of the Crimean parliament may be abrogated by the Constitutional Court, should they be found to violate the constitution. Other normative acts are subject to judicial review. The Supreme Court is the main body in the system of courts of general jurisdiction. Local self-government is officially guaranteed. Local councils and city mayors are popularly elected and exercise control over local budgets. The heads of regional and district administrations are appointed by the president in accordance with the proposals of the prime minister.[192]
Courts and law enforcement
Main articles: Judicial system of Ukraine and Law enforcement in Ukraine
Klovsky Palace, home to the Supreme Court of Ukraine
Martial law was declared when Russia invaded in February 2022,[193] and continues.[194][195]
The courts enjoy legal, financial and constitutional freedom guaranteed by Ukrainian law since 2002. Judges are largely well protected from dismissal (except for gross misconduct). Court justices are appointed by presidential decree for an initial period of five years, after which Ukraine's Supreme Council confirms their positions for life. Although there are still problems, the system is considered to have been much improved since Ukraine's independence in 1991. The Supreme Court is regarded as an independent and impartial body, and has on several occasions ruled against the Ukrainian government. The World Justice Project ranks Ukraine 66 out of 99 countries surveyed in its annual Rule of Law Index.[196]
Prosecutors in Ukraine have greater powers than in most European countries, and according to the European Commission for Democracy through Law "the role and functions of the Prosecutor's Office is not in accordance with Council of Europe standards".[197] The conviction rate is over 99%,[198] equal to the conviction rate of the Soviet Union, with[199] suspects often being incarcerated for long periods before trial.[200]
The Cabinet of Ministers building
On 24 March 2010, President Yanukovych formed an expert group to make recommendations on how to "clean up the current mess and adopt a law on court organization".[200] One day later, he stated "We can no longer disgrace our country with such a court system."[200] The criminal judicial system and the prison system of Ukraine remain quite punitive.[201]
Since 2010 court proceedings can be held in Russian by mutual consent of the parties. Citizens unable to speak Ukrainian or Russian may use their native language or the services of a translator.[202][203] Previously all court proceedings had to be held in Ukrainian.[201]
Law enforcement agencies are controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs. They consist primarily of the national police force and various specialised units and agencies such as the State Border Guard and the Coast Guard services. Law enforcement agencies, particularly the police, faced criticism for their heavy handling of the 2004 Orange Revolution. Many thousands of police officers were stationed throughout the capital, primarily to dissuade protesters from challenging the state's authority but also to provide a quick reaction force in case of need; most officers were armed.[204]
Foreign relations
Main articles: Foreign relations of Ukraine, International membership of Ukraine, Ukraine–European Union relations, and Ukraine and the World Bank
President of Georgia Salome Zurabishvili, President of Moldova Maia Sandu, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy and European Council President Charles Michel during the 2021 International Conference in Batumi. In 2014, the EU signed association agreements with all three countries.
From 1999 to 2001, Ukraine served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. Historically, Soviet Ukraine joined the United Nations in 1945 as one of the original members following a Western compromise with the Soviet Union.[205] Ukraine has consistently supported peaceful, negotiated settlements to disputes. It has participated in the quadripartite talks on the conflict in Moldova and promoted a peaceful resolution to the conflict in the post-Soviet state of Georgia. Ukraine also has made contributions to UN peacekeeping operations since 1992.[206]
Ukraine considers Euro-Atlantic integration its primary foreign policy objective,[207] but in practice it has always balanced its relationship with the European Union and the United States with strong ties to Russia. The European Union's Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with Ukraine went into force in 1998. The European Union (EU) has encouraged Ukraine to implement the PCA fully before discussions begin on an association agreement, issued at the EU Summit in December 1999 in Helsinki, recognizes Ukraine's long-term aspirations but does not discuss association.[207]
In 1992, Ukraine joined the then-Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (now the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)), and also became a member of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. Ukraine–NATO relations are close and the country has declared interest in eventual membership.[207]
Ukraine is the most active member of the Partnership for Peace (PfP). All major political parties in Ukraine support full eventual integration into the European Union.[208] The Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union was signed in 2014.[209]
Ukraine long had close ties with all its neighbours, but Russia–Ukraine relations rapidly deteriorated in 2014 due to the annexation of Crimea, energy dependence and payment disputes.
In January 2016, Ukraine joined the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (green) with the EU (blue), established by the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement, opening its path towards European integration.
The Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA), which entered into force in January 2016 following the ratification of the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement, formally integrates Ukraine into the European Single Market and the European Economic Area.[210][211] Ukraine receives further support and assistance for its EU-accession aspirations from the International Visegrád Fund of the Visegrád Group that consists of Central European EU members the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and Slovakia.[212]
In 2020, in Lublin, Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine created the Lublin Triangle initiative, which aims to create further cooperation between the three historical countries of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and further Ukraine's integration and accession to the EU and NATO.[213]
In 2021, the Association Trio was formed by signing a joint memorandum between the Foreign Ministers of Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine. The Association Trio is a tripartite format for enhanced cooperation, coordination, and dialogue between the three countries (that have signed the Association Agreement with the EU) with the European Union on issues of common interest related to European integration, enhancing cooperation within the framework of the Eastern Partnership, and committing to the prospect of joining the European Union.[214] As of 2021, Ukraine was preparing to formally apply for EU membership in 2024, in order to join the European Union in the 2030s,[215] however, with the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy requested that the country be admitted to the EU immediately.[216] Candidate status was granted on 23 June 2022.[161]
Armed forces
Main article: Armed Forces of Ukraine
Henadii Lachkov, commander of the Ukrainian contingent in Multi-National Force – Iraq, kisses his country's flag
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine inherited a 780,000-man military force on its territory, equipped with the third-largest nuclear weapons arsenal in the world.[217][218] In 1992, Ukraine signed the Lisbon Protocol in which the country agreed to give up all nuclear weapons to Russia for disposal and to join the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapon state. By 1996 the country had become free of nuclear weapons.[217]
Ukraine took consistent steps toward reduction of conventional weapons. It signed the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which called for reduction of tanks, artillery, and armoured vehicles (army forces were reduced to 300,000). The country plans to convert the current conscript-based military into a professional volunteer military.[219][better source needed] Ukraine's current military consist of 196,600 active personnel and around 900,000 reservists.[220]
The Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sahaydachniy (U130)
Ukraine played an increasing role in peacekeeping operations. In 2014, the Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sagaidachniy joined the European Union's counter piracy Operation Atalanta and was part of the EU Naval Force off the coast of Somalia for two months.[221] Ukrainian troops were deployed in Kosovo as part of the Ukrainian-Polish Battalion.[222]
A Ukrainian unit was deployed in Lebanon, as part of UN Interim Force enforcing the mandated ceasefi
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우크라이나(우크라이나어: Україна)는 동유럽 국가다. 남쪽과 남동쪽으로는 흑해와 아조프해, 동쪽과 북동쪽으로는 러시아, 북쪽과 북서쪽으로는 벨라루스, 서쪽으로는 폴란드, 슬로바키아, 헝가리, 남서쪽으로는 루마니아, 몰도바와 접한다. 키이우가 수도이며 가장 큰 도시다. 동유럽 평원과 이어져 있으며 기후는 비교적 온화한 편이다. 법적 공용어는 우크라이나어이고, 인구 대부분은 우크라이나어를 사용하지만, 대부분 동부 인구(주로 동부 지역과 동남부 지역, 오데사 지역)는 러시아어 사용자이기도 하다. 주요 도시로는 키이우, 도네츠크, 드니프로, 하르키우, 르비우, 오데사, 자포리자가 있다. 2014년 러시아가 크림반도를 합병함에 따라 행정력이 크림반도에 미치지 못하지만, 국제사회는 대체로 크림반도를 우크라이나의 일부라는 태도를 견지하고 있다.
중세 초 루스 카간국으로부터 키예프 루스로 이어진 우크라이나는 오랫동안 투르크족·몽골족 등 지배를 받았다. 19세기까지 대다수 우크라이나 영토가 러시아 제국에 통합되었고, 나머지 부분은 오스트리아-헝가리 통제 아래 있었다. 우크라이나는 러시아 혁명 후 혼란과 끊임 없는 전쟁 속에서 여러 차례 독립을 시도하여 1917년에 민족국가를 건설했으나, 1922년에 소비에트 연방에 강제 합병되었다. 1923년 소비에트 연방 헌법 적용을 받으며 우크라이나 소비에트 사회주의 공화국이란 이름의 구성국으로 존재했다, 1991년 소련 해체와 함께 독립하였다.[1]
지하 자원이 풍부하여 도네츠 탄전의 석탄, 크리보이로그의 철광석, 카르파티아 유전과 천연가스, 그 밖에 망간, 우라늄, 식염, 칼리염, 석회석 등을 산출한다. 산업으로는 석탄·철광·선철 생산에서 중요성 있다. 풍부한 수력 전기를 이용하여 기계 제조 공업·화학 공업이 크게 발달했으며 유수 공업 지대를 이루고 있다. 석탄업, 철강업, 기계 제조업, 화학 공업 중심은 돈바스·드니프로 주이며, 드니프로 강 하구에서 키이우 사이 6개 수력 발전소가 단계상(段階狀)으로 건설되어 있다. 우크라이나 경지율은 약 70%에 이르고 있어, 겨울밀·옥수수·보리·사탕무·해바라기·포도의 재배, 가축 사양 등에서는 구소련 시절 매우 중요한 지위를 차지하고 있었다. 온난한 크림 반도 남단과 광천이 솟는 카르파트 지방은 중요한 관광·보양지다.[1] 러시아 작가 니콜라이 고골의 작품 〈타라스 부리바〉 배경으로도 알려졌다. 공용어는 우크라이나어를 쓰고, 우크라이나 국민 절대 다수가 믿는 종교는 우크라이나 정교회다.
자연 환경
지리
<nowiki /> 이 부분의 본문은 우크라이나의 지리입니다.
동유럽 지도 - V. Coronelli (1690).
우크라이나 지도
국토 면적 603,700km2에 576,700km2 (크림 공화국과 세바스토폴 제외시) 해안선 길이는 2,782km로, 우크라이나는 세계에서 44번째로 큰 국가(중앙아프리카 공화국보다는 작고, 마다가스카르보다는 크다.)이다. 또한, 유럽에서는 두 번째로 큰 나라이다[2]. 어떤 사람들은 유럽의 중심이 우크라이나 서쪽의 라키브 마을 인근이라고 한다. 하지만 여전히 유럽의 지리적 중심을 보는 관점에 대해 논쟁이 있다.
우크라이나는 비옥한 평원, 스텝, 고원이 있으며, 그들을 지나가는 강이 흑해로 흘러들어간다. 거의 남쪽 만으로 강이 빠져나가고 남동부 지방에는 다뉴브 삼각지가 루마니아와 국경을 접하고 있다. 우크라이나의 대표적인 산은 카르파티아 산맥으로서 우크라이나 서부에 위치한다. 우크라이나에서 가장 높은 산은 호베를라 산으로 높이는 2,061m이다. 크림 반도를 따라서 넓은 해안선이 펼쳐진다.
우크라이나에 분포하고 있는 초르노젬(흑토) 지대는 비옥한 토양으로 유명하다. 그 밖에 아스팔트, 무연탄, 철, 망가니즈, 크롬, 타이타늄, 납, 아연, 알루미늄, 수은, 니켈, 천연 가스, 석유 등 70여 가지의 종류에 달하는 천연 자원이 매장되어 있다.
기후
대개 온화한 대륙성 기후를 보이는데 남쪽의 크림 반도 인근에서는 온난 습윤 기후가 나타나기도 한다. 비는 북서부 지방에 가장 많이 내리고 동부와 남동부 지역은 덜 오는 편이다. 겨울은 흑해 인근 지방이라면 따뜻하지만 내륙으로 들어갈수록 대체로 추워진다. 여름에는 전반적으로 따뜻하지만 남쪽 지방은 무덥다.
역사
<nowiki /> 이 부분의 본문은 우크라이나의 역사입니다.
기원
우크라이나 역사는 중앙아시아에서부터 건너와 동유럽을 정복한 튀르크 민족들의 관계를 빼 놓을 수 없다. 3세기부터 시작한 중앙아시아 투르크 민족들의 유럽 침공과 동슬라브족 정복 그리고 이주는 5세기부터 10세기까지 사바르 카간국에 이어 아바르 카간국 그리고 하자르 카간국까지 이어진다. 동유럽 동슬라브 원주민들은 사바르 카간국에 정복당해 프랑크족들과 대립하기도 하였고 하자르 카간국의 우크라이나 초원 정복으로 인해 동슬라브 문화는 서유럽의 문화와는 조금 이질적인 특징을 가지게 되었다. 하자르 카간국의 영향에 따라 동슬라브족으로서의 정체성이 생기기 시작하였고 8세기에서 9세기에 루스 카간국이라는 고대 투르크어인 군주 칭호인 카간을 자칭하는 북게르만족 루스인의 첫 국가가 등장하였다. 그 전까지는 벨라루스와 우크라이나를 지배했던 중앙아시아 투르크 민족들이 카간을 자칭하였으나 그 지배 아래 동슬라브인들도 완전히 종속과 동화되어 동슬라브인의 정체성이 확립되었고 그 후 동슬라브인들이 카간을 자칭하였다.
키예프 루스는 10세기까지 중앙아시아 투르크 민족의 영향을 받았고 이에 따라 류리크 왕조의 시조인 류리크 또한 위대한 카간이자 왕으로 불렸다는 기록이 존재한다. 862년경 전까지는 확실히 카간이라 칭한 루스인들이 페르시아 사서와 동, 서 로마 기록에 남아 있다. 여기에 원초연대기의 기록에서는 루스인들의 카간으로 알려진 류리크가 동슬라브족 지역에 정착하면서 류리크 왕조와 키예프 루스가 나타나며 카간이라는 호칭보다는 크냐지 또는 벨리키 크냐지라는 호칭이 자주 쓰이게 된다.[3] 동슬라브인들은 튀르크계 카간국인 하자르 카간국의 지배하에 오랫동안 있었다. 루스인들의 첫 국가인 루스 카간국이 키예프 루스로 발전하였고 그 남쪽이 현재 우크라이나 영토이다. 이 중세 국가의 수도는 현 우크라이나의 수도인 키이우였다. 키예프 루스는 현재의 북게르만족 계통의 루스인들이 세웠다고 하나 동유럽 학자들은 이에 부정적이다. 루스인들은 강력한 류리크 왕조를 세웠다. 그리하여 10세기와 11세기에는 키예프 루스가 유럽에서 가장 중요한 국가 중 하나가 되어 후의 우크라이나, 벨라루스, 러시아 3국의 국가 정체성 형성의 바탕이 되었다.
키예프 루스는 내부 분열과 몽골의 침략으로 멸망하였다. 우크라이나 땅에는 갈리치아(Galicia, Halych)와 볼히니아(Volhynia, Volodymyr-Volynskii) 두 공국이 그 뒤를 이었다. 갈리치아와 볼히니아는 갈리치아-볼히니아 왕국으로 합쳐졌다 분열되고 결국은 폴란드-리투아니아 연방에 의해 정복되었다.
근대
17세기 중반에는 우크라이나 중부에 카자크 수장국이 세워져 백년 이상 러시아 차르국의 압력을 견뎠으나 결국 폴란드와 러시아에 의해 분할되었다. 그 후 18세기 후반의 폴란드 분할을 통해 우크라이나의 중부와 동부는 러시아 제국에 합병되고 서부는 오스트리아-헝가리 제국에 합병되었다.
1917년 러시아 혁명 이후 오스트리아 지배 하의 서부 우크라이나와 러시아 지배 하의 동부 우크라이나가 각각 독립을 선언, 1920년에는 동서 통일을 선언했으나 외부 군대의 침략으로 신생 독립국 우크라이나는 오래 가지 못하였다. 결국 1922년에 서쪽은 폴란드, 동쪽은 소비에트 연방의 영토가 되었다. 소비에트 연방령 우크라이나는 1921년~1922년, 1932년~1933년 두 차례에 걸쳐 큰 기근을 겪었다. 둘째 기근은 스탈린이 집단 농장 체제에 저항이 심했던 우크라이나에 대해 인위적으로 부른 기근으로 홀로도모르라 불린다. 이로 인한 사망자 수는 적게는 8백만 명에서 많게는 1천만 명 이상으로 추산되고 있다.
우크라이나의 역사
Історія України
Kijów - Sobór Mądrości Bożej 02.jpg
선사시대
전근대
근대
현대
vte
1939년 제2차 세계 대전이 발발하자 소비에트 연방은 폴란드를 침공, 우크라이나 서부를 우크라이나 소비에트 사회주의 공화국의 일부로 만들었다. 1941년에는 독일군과 추축군이 소비에트 연방의 적군을 쳐부수었다. 소비에트 연방이 '영웅 도시'라 칭한 키예프 전투에서는 66만 여명이 넘는 소비에트 연방군이 포로로 잡혔다. 처음에는 우크라이나인들이 독일군을 '해방군'으로 환영했다. 그러나 나치 독일은 곧 대량 학살을 시작하여 유대인들과 우크라이나인 민간인들을 죽이거나 강제 추방하였다. 마을 전체를 태워 없애기도 하여 우크라이나인들은 독일의 지배가 소비에트 연방의 지배처럼 포악하다고 판단하게 되었다. 전쟁 중과 독일 치하의 민간인 사망자 수는 50여만 명이 넘는 유대인들을 포함하여 7백만 명 정도로 추산된다. 갈리치아 지방에서는 폴란드인들과 우크라이나인들끼리 서로 집단 학살을 저지르기도 한 끔찍한 시기였다. 독일과의 전투로 소련군은 약 1천 100만 명의 사망자를 냈는데 그 가운데 270만 명이 우크라이나계였다. 우크라이나 민족은 추축국
https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%B0%ED%81%AC%EB%9D%BC%EC%9D%B4%EB%82%98
--------------------------
Ukraine
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For other uses, see Ukraine (disambiguation).
Ukraine
Україна (Ukrainian)
Flag of Ukraine
Flag
Coat of arms of Ukraine
Coat of arms
Anthem: Державний Гімн України
Derzhavnyi Himn Ukrainy
"State Anthem of Ukraine"
1:20
Ukraine - disputed (orthographic projection).svg
Show globe
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Show all
Location of Ukraine (green)
Occupied/annexed territories prior to the 2022 Russian invasion (light green)
Capital
and largest city
Kyiv
49°N 32°ECoordinates: 49°N 32°E
Official language
and national language Ukrainian[1]
Ethnic groups (2001)[2]
77.8% Ukrainians
17.3% Russians
4.9% Others
Religion (2018)[3]
87.3% Christianity
11.0% No religion
0.8% Others
0.9% Unanswered
Demonym(s) Ukrainian
Government Unitary semi-presidential republic
• President
Volodymyr Zelenskyy
• Prime Minister
Denys Shmyhal
• Chairman of the
Verkhovna Rada
Ruslan Stefanchuk
Legislature Verkhovna Rada
Formation
• Kievan Rus'
879
• Kingdom of Ruthenia
1199
• Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Ruthenia
1362
• Cossack Hetmanate
18 August 1649
• Ukrainian People's Republic
10 June 1917
• Declaration of independence of the Ukrainian People's Republic
22 January 1918
• West Ukrainian People's Republic
1 November 1918
• Act of Unity
22 January 1919
• Declaration of independence from Soviet Union
24 August 1991
• Independence referendum
1 December 1991
• Current constitution
28 June 1996
Area
• Total
603,628[4] km2 (233,062 sq mi) (45th)
• Water (%)
3.8[5]
Population
• January 2022 estimate
Neutral decrease 41,167,336[6]
(excluding Crimea) (36th)
• 2001 census
48,457,102[2]
• Density
73.8/km2 (191.1/sq mi) (115th)
GDP (PPP) 2021 estimate
• Total
Increase $588 billion[7]
• Per capita
Increase $14,330[7]
GDP (nominal) 2021 estimate
• Total
Increase $198 billion[7]
• Per capita
Increase $4,830[7]
Gini (2020) Positive decrease 25.6[8]
low
HDI (2021) Decrease 0.773[9]
high · 77th
Currency Hryvnia (₴) (UAH)
Time zone UTC+2[10] (EET)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+3 (EEST)
Driving side right
Calling code +380
ISO 3166 code UA
Internet TLD
.ua
.укр
Website
ukraine.ua
Ukraine (Ukrainian: Україна, romanized: Ukraïna, pronounced [ʊkrɐˈjinɐ] (listen)) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast.[a][11] Pre-war Ukraine covered approximately 600,000 square kilometres (230,000 sq mi),[b] and was the eighth-most populous country in Europe, with a population of around 41 million people.[c][6] It is also bordered by Belarus to the north; by Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary to the west; and by Romania and Moldova[d] to the southwest; with a coastline along the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov to the south and southeast.[e] Kyiv is the nation's capital and largest city. The country's national language is Ukrainian, and most people are also fluent in Russian.[14]
During the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture under the state of Kievan Rus', which emerged in the 9th century and was ultimately destroyed by the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. After the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia emerged the area was contested, divided, and ruled by a variety of external powers for the next 600 years; including the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Austrian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Tsardom of Russia. The Cossack Hetmanate emerged in central Ukraine in the 17th century, but was partitioned between Russia and Poland, and ultimately absorbed by the Russian Empire. After the Russian Revolution a Ukrainian national movement re-emerged, and formed the Ukrainian People's Republic in 1917. This short-lived state was forcibly reconstituted by the Bolsheviks into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which became a founding member of the Soviet Union in 1922. In the 1930s millions of Ukrainians were killed by the Holodomor, a Stalin-era man-made famine.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Ukraine regained independence and declared itself neutral,[15] forming a limited military partnership with the post-Soviet Commonwealth of Independent States, while also joining the Partnership for Peace with NATO in 1994. In 2013 a series of mass demonstrations, known as the Euromaidan, erupted across Ukraine, eventually escalating into the Revolution of Dignity in 2014, which led to the establishment of a new government and pro-Russian unrest. During this period, unmarked Russian troops invaded the Crimean Peninsula, which was later annexed by Russia; and pro-Russia unrest in Ukraine's Donbas culminated in Russia-backed separatists seizing territory throughout the region, sparking the War in Donbas. This series of events marked the beginning of the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War, and in a major escalation of the conflict in February 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine. Since the outbreak of war with Russia in 2014, Ukraine has continued to seek closer economic, political, and military ties with the Western world, including with the United States, European Union, and NATO.[16]
Ukraine is a unitary republic under a semi-presidential system and a developing country, ranking 77th on the Human Development Index. Ukraine is the poorest country in Europe by nominal GDP per capita,[17] and has high levels of corruption and poverty.[18][19] However, due to its extensive fertile land, pre-war Ukraine was one of the largest grain exporters in the world.[20][21] It is a founding member of the United Nations, as well as a member of the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization, the OSCE, and is currently in the process of joining the European Union.
Contents
1 Etymology and orthography
2 History
2.1 Early history
2.2 Golden Age of Kyiv
2.3 Foreign domination
2.4 Cossack Hetmanate
2.5 19th and early 20th century
2.6 Inter-war Ukraine
2.7 World War II
2.8 Post–war Soviet Ukraine
2.9 Independence
3 Geography
3.1 Climate
3.2 Biodiversity
3.3 Urban areas
4 Politics
4.1 Constitution
4.2 President, parliament and government
4.3 Courts and law enforcement
4.4 Foreign relations
4.5 Armed forces
4.6 Administrative divisions
5 Economy
5.1 Agriculture
5.2 Transport
5.3 Energy
5.4 Information technology
6 Demographics
6.1 Language
6.2 Diaspora
6.3 Religion
6.4 Health
6.5 Education
6.6 Regional differences
7 Culture
7.1 Literature
7.2 Architecture
7.3 Weaving and embroidery
7.4 Music
7.5 Media
7.6 Sport
7.7 Cuisine
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Print sources
11.1 Reference books
11.2 Recent (since 1991)
11.3 History
12 External links
Etymology and orthography
Main article: Name of Ukraine
The name of Ukraine probably comes from the old Slavic term for "borderland",[22] as does the word krajina.
In the English-speaking world during most of the 20th century, Ukraine (whether independent or not) was referred to as "the Ukraine".[23] This is because the word ukraina means "borderland"[24] so the definite article would be natural in the English language; this is similar to "Nederlanden", which means "low lands" and is rendered in English as "the Netherlands".[25] However, since Ukraine's declaration of independence in 1991, this usage has become politicised and is now rarer, and style guides advise against its use.[26][27] US ambassador William Taylor said that using "the Ukraine" implies disregard for Ukrainian sovereignty.[28] The official Ukrainian position is that "the Ukraine" is incorrect, both grammatically and politically.[29]
History
Main article: History of Ukraine
Early history
A gold Scythian neckpiece, from a royal kurgan in Pokrov (4th century BC).
Settlement by modern humans in Ukraine and its vicinity dates back to 32,000 BC, with evidence of the Gravettian culture in the Crimean Mountains.[30][31] By 4,500 BC, the Neolithic Cucuteni–Trypillia culture was flourishing in wide areas of modern Ukraine, including Trypillia and the entire Dnieper-Dniester region. Ukraine is also considered to be the likely location of the first domestication of the horse.[32][33][34][35] During the Iron Age, the land was inhabited by Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians.[36] Between 700 BC and 200 BC it was part of the Scythian kingdom.[37]
From the 6th century BC, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine colonies were established on the north-eastern shore of the Black Sea, such as at Tyras, Olbia, and Chersonesus. These thrived into the 6th century AD. The Goths stayed in the area, but came under the sway of the Huns from the 370s. In the 7th century, the territory that is now eastern Ukraine was the centre of Old Great Bulgaria. At the end of the century, the majority of Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions, and the Khazars took over much of the land.[38]
In the 5th and 6th centuries, the Early Slavic, Antes people lived in Ukraine. The Antes were the ancestors of Ukrainians: White Croats, Severians, Eastern Polans, Drevlyans, Dulebes, Ulichians, and Tiverians. Migrations from the territories of present-day Ukraine throughout the Balkans established many South Slavic nations. Northern migrations, reaching almost to Lake Ilmen, led to the emergence of the Ilmen Slavs, Krivichs, and Radimichs, the groups ancestral to the Russians. Following an Avar raid in 602 and the collapse of the Antes Union, most of these peoples survived as separate tribes until the beginning of the second millennium.[39][need quotation to verify]
Golden Age of Kyiv
Main articles: Kievan Rus' and Kingdom of Ruthenia
The furthest extent of Kievan Rus', 1054–1132.
The establishment of the Kievan Rus' remains obscure and uncertain; there are at least three versions depending on interpretations of the chronicles.[40] In general, the state included much of present-day Ukraine, Belarus and the western part of European Russia.[41] According to the Primary Chronicle the Rus' elite and rulers initially consisted of Varangians from Scandinavia.[42] In 882, the pagan Prince Oleg (Oleh) conquered Kyiv from Askold and Dir and proclaimed it as the capital of the Rus'.[43] However, it is also believed that the East Slavic tribes along the southern parts of the Dnieper River were already in the process of forming a state independently.[44] In any case, the Varangians later assimilated into the Slavic population and became part of the first Rus' dynasty, the Rurik dynasty.[41] Kievan Rus' was composed of several principalities ruled by the interrelated Rurikid kniazes ("princes"), who often fought each other for possession of Kyiv.[45]
During the 10th and 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became the largest and most powerful state in Europe, a period known as its Golden Age.[46] It began with the reign of Vladimir the Great (980–1015), who turned Rus' toward Byzantine Christianity. During the reign of his son, Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054), Kievan Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power.[41] The state soon fragmented as the relative importance of regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule of Vladimir II Monomakh (1113–1125) and his son Mstislav (1125–1132), Kievan Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav's death, though ownership of Kyiv would still carry great prestige for decades.[47]
The 13th-century Mongol invasion devastated Kievan Rus' and Kyiv was completely destroyed in 1240.[48] On today's Ukrainian territory, the principalities of Halych and Volodymyr-Volynskyi arose, and were merged into the state of Galicia–Volhynia.[49] Daniel of Galicia, son of Roman the Great, re-united much of south-western Rus', including Volhynia, Galicia and the ancient capital of Kyiv. He was subsequently crowned by the papal archbishop as the first king of the newly created Kingdom of Ruthenia in 1253.[50]
Foreign domination
See also: Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Crimean Khanate, Ottoman Empire, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russian Empire
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth at its maximum extent in 1619. Poland and the Polish Crown exercised power over much of Ukraine since 1569.
In 1349, Ruthenia ceased to exist as an independent entity in the aftermath of the Galicia–Volhynia Wars, with its lands partitioned between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[51] From the mid-13th century to the late 1400s the Republic of Genoa founded numerous colonies in the Black Sea region of modern Ukraine and transformed these into large commercial centers headed by the consul, a representative of the Republic.[52] In 1430, the region of Podolia was incorporated into Poland and Ukraine became increasingly settled by Polish colonisers.[53] In 1441, Genghisid prince Haci I Giray founded the Crimean Khanate on the Crimean Peninsula and the surrounding steppes;[54] the Khanate orchestrated Tatar slave raids and took an estimated two million Ruthenian slaves.[55][56]
In 1569 the Union of Lublin established the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and most of the former Ruthenian lands were transferred from Lithuania to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, becoming de jure Polish territory. Under the pressures of Polonisation, many landed gentry of Ruthenia converted to Catholicism and joined the circles of the Polish nobility; others still joined the newly created Ruthenian Uniate Church.[57]
Cossack Hetmanate
Main article: Cossack Hetmanate
Deprived of native protectors among Rus nobility, the peasants and townspeople began turning for protection to the emerging Zaporozhian Cossacks. In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasi-state, the Zaporozhian Host, was formed by Dnieper Cossacks and Ruthenian peasants.[58] Poland exercised little real control over this population, but found the Cossacks to be useful against the Turks and Tatars,[59] and at times the two were allies in military campaigns.[60] However, the continued harsh enserfment of Ruthenian peasantry by Polish overlords and the suppression of the Orthodox Church alienated the Cossacks.[59] The latter did not shy from taking up arms against those they perceived as enemies and occupiers, including the Polish Catholic state with its local representatives.[61]
Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky established an independent Cossack state after the 1648 uprising against Poland.
In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led the largest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king, which enjoyed wide support from the local population.[62] Khmelnytsky founded the Cossack Hetmanate, which existed until 1764 (some sources claim until 1782).[63] After Khmelnytsky suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Berestechko in 1651, he turned to the Russian tsar for help. In 1654, Khmelnytsky was subject to the Pereiaslav Agreement, forming a military and political alliance with Russia that acknowledged loyalty to the Russian monarch.
After his death, the Hetmanate went through a devastating 30-year war amongst Russia, Poland, the Crimean Khanate, the Ottoman Empire, and Cossacks, known as "The Ruin" (1657-1686), for control of the Cossack Hetmanate. The "Treaty of Perpetual Peace" between Russia and Poland in 1686 divided the lands of the Cossack Hetmanate between them, reducing the portion over which Poland had claimed sovereignty to Ukraine west of the Dnieper river. In 1686, the Metropolitanate of Kyiv was annexed by the Moscow Patriarchate through a synodal letter of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Dionysius IV, thus placing the Metropolitanate of Kyiv under the authority of Moscow. An attempt to reverse the decline was undertaken by Cossack Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1639–1709), who ultimately defected to the Swedes in the Great Northern War (1700-1721) in a bid to get rid of Russian dependence,[64] but they were crushed in the Battle of Poltava (1709).[64]
Russia's victory over Charles XII of Sweden and his ally Ivan Mazepa at the Battle of Poltava (1709) destroyed Cossack autonomy.
The Hetmanate's autonomy was severely restricted since Poltava. In the years 1764–1781, Catherine the Great incorporated much of Central Ukraine into the Russian Empire, abolishing the Cossack Hetmanate and the Zaporozhian Sich, and was one of the people responsible for the suppression of the last major Cossack uprising, the Koliivshchyna.[65] After the annexation of Crimea by Russia in 1783, the newly acquired lands, now called Novorossiya, were opened up to settlement by Russians.[66] The tsarist autocracy established a policy of Russification, suppressing the use of the Ukrainian language and curtailing the Ukrainian national identity.[67] The western part of present-day Ukraine was subsequently split between Russia and Habsburg-ruled Austria after the fall of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795.
19th and early 20th century
Main articles: Southwestern Krai, Kharkov Governorate, and Chernigov Governorate
Further information: Ukraine during World War I, Ukraine after the Russian Revolution, Ukrainian War of Independence, and Ukrainian–Soviet War
Polish troops enter Kyiv in May 1920 during the Polish–Soviet War. Following the Peace of Riga signed on 18 March 1921, Poland took control of modern-day western Ukraine while Soviets took control of eastern and central Ukraine.
The 19th century saw the rise of Ukrainian nationalism. With growing urbanization and modernization and a cultural trend toward romantic nationalism, the Ukrainian intelligentsia committed to national rebirth and social justice emerged. The serf-turned-national-poet Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861) and political theorist Mykhailo Drahomanov (1841–1895) led the growing nationalist movement.[68][69] While conditions for its development in Austrian Galicia under the Habsburgs were relatively lenient,[70] the Russian part (known as Little Russia) faced severe restrictions, going as far as banning virtually all books from being published in Ukrainian in 1876.
Ukraine joined the Industrial Revolution later than most of Western Europe[71] due to the maintenance of serfdom until 1861. Other than near the newly discovered coal fields of the Donbas, and in some larger cities such as Odesa and Kyiv, Ukraine largely remained an agricultural and resource extraction economy.[72] The Austrian part of Ukraine was particularly destitute, which forced hundreds of thousands of peasants into emigration, who created the backbone of an extensive Ukrainian diaspora in countries such as Canada, the United States and Brazil.[73] Some of the Ukrainians settled in the Far East, too. According to the 1897 census, there were 223,000 ethnic Ukrainians in Siberia and 102,000 in Central Asia.[74] An additional 1.6 million emigrated to the east in the ten years after the opening of the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1906.[75] Far Eastern areas with an ethnic Ukrainian population became known as Green Ukraine.[76]
Ukraine plunged into turmoil with the beginning of World War I, and fighting on Ukrainian soil persisted until late 1921. Initually, the Ukrainians were split between Austria-Hungary, fighting for the Central Powers, though the vast majority served in the Imperial Russian Army, which was part of the Triple Entente, under Russia.[77] As the Russian Empire collapsed, the conflict evolved into the Ukrainian War of Independence, with Ukrainians fighting alongside, or against, the Red, White, Black and Green armies, with the Poles, (in Transcarpathia) Hungarians, and Germans also intervening at various times.
An attempt to create an independent state, the left-leaning Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR), was first announced by Mykhailo Hrushevsky, but the period was plagued by an extremely unstable political and military environment. It was first deposed in a coup d'état led by Pavlo Skoropadskyi, which yielded the Ukrainian State under the German protectorate, and the attempt to restore the UNR under the Directorate ultimately failed as the Ukrainian army was regularly overrun by other forces. The short-lived West Ukrainian People's Republic and Hutsul Republic also failed to join the rest of Ukraine.[78]
The result of the conflict was a partial victory for the Second Polish Republic, which annexed the Western Ukrainian provinces, as well as a larger-scale victory for the pro-Soviet forces, which succeeded in dislodging the remaining factions and eventually established the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Ukraine). Meanwhile, modern-day Bukovina was occupied by Romania and Carpathian Ruthenia was admitted to Czechoslovakia as an autonomous region.[79]
The conflict over the Ukraine, a part of the broader Russian Civil War, devastated the whole of the former Russian Empire, including eastern and central Ukraine. The fighting left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless in the former Russian Empire's territory. The eastern provinces were additionally impacted by a famine in 1921.[80][81]
Inter-war Ukraine
See also: Holodomor
A starved man on the streets of Kharkiv, 1933. Collectivization of crops and their confiscation by Soviet authorities led to a major famine in Soviet Ukraine known as the Holodomor.
In Poland, the government openly propagated anti-Ukrainian sentiment and restricted rights of people who declared Ukrainian nationality and belonged to the Eastern Orthodox Church.[82][83] In consequence, an underground Ukrainian nationalist and militant movement arose in the 1920s and 1930s, which gradually transformed into the Ukrainian Military Organization and later the Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).
Meanwhile, the recently constituted Soviet Ukraine became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. During the 1920s,[84] under the Ukrainisation policy pursued by the national Communist leadership of Mykola Skrypnyk, Soviet leadership at first encouraged a national renaissance in Ukrainian culture and language. Ukrainisation was part of the Soviet-wide policy of Korenisation (literally indigenisation), which was intended to promote the advancement of native peoples, their language and culture into the governance of their respective republics.
Around the same time, Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin instituted the New Economic Policy (NEP), which introduced a form of market socialism, allowing some private ownership of small and medium-sized productive enterprises, hoping to reconstruct the post-war Soviet Union that had been devastated by both WWI and later the civil war. The NEP was successful at restoring the formerly war-torn nation to pre-WWI levels of production and agricultural output by the mid-1920s, much of the latter based in Ukraine.[85] These policies attracted many prominent former UNR figures, including former UNR leader Hrushevsky, to return to Soviet Ukraine, where they were accepted, and participated in the advancement of Ukrainian science and culture.[86]
This period was cut short when Joseph Stalin became the leader of the USSR following Lenin's death. Stalin did away with the NEP in what became known as the Great Break. Starting from the late 1920s and now with a centrally planned economy, Soviet Ukraine took part in an industrialisation scheme which quadrupled its industrial output during the 1930s.
However, as a consequence of Stalin's new policy, the Ukrainian peasantry suffered from the programme of collectivization of agricultural crops. Collectivization was part of the first five-year plan and was enforced by regular troops and the secret police known as Cheka. Those who resisted were arrested and deported to gulags and work camps. As members of the collective farms were sometimes not allowed to receive any grain until unrealistic quotas were met, millions starved to death in a famine known as the Holodomor or the "Great Famine", which was recognized by some countries as an act of genocide perpetrated by Joseph Stalin and other Soviet notables.[87]
Following on the Russian Civil War, and collectivisation, the Great Purge, while killing Stalin's perceived political enemies, resulted in a profound loss of a new generation of Ukrainian intelligentsia, known today as the Executed Renaissance.[88]
World War II
See also: Eastern Front (World War II), Reichskommissariat Ukraine, and The Holocaust in Ukraine
The territorial evolution of the Ukrainian SSR, 1922–1954
Following the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, German and Soviet troops divided the territory of Poland. Thus, Eastern Galicia and Volhynia with their Ukrainian population became part of Ukraine. For the first time in history, the nation was united.[89][90] Further territorial gains were secured in 1940, when the Ukrainian SSR incorporated the northern and southern districts of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region from the territories the USSR forced Romania to cede, though it handed over the western part of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to the newly created Moldavian SSR. These territorial gains of the USSR were internationally recognized by the Paris peace treaties of 1947.[citation needed]
Marshal Timoshenko (born in the Budjak region) commanded numerous fronts throughout the war, including the Southwestern Front east of Kyiv in 1941.
German armies invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, initiating nearly four years of total war. The Axis initially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In the battle of Kyiv, the city was acclaimed as a "Hero City", because of its fierce resistance. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one-quarter of the Soviet Western Front) were killed or taken captive there, with many suffering severe mistreatment.[91][92] After its conquest, most of the Ukrainian SSR was organised within the Reichskommissariat Ukraine, with the intention of exploiting its resources and eventual German settlement. Some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the Soviet Union in 1939, hailed the Germans as liberators, but that did not last long as the Nazis made little attempt to exploit dissatisfaction with Stalinist policies.[93] Instead, the Nazis preserved the collective-farm system, carried out genocidal policies against Jews, deported millions of people to work in Germany, and began a depopulation program to prepare for German colonisation.[93] They blockaded the transport of food on the Dnieper River.[94]
Although the majority of Ukrainians fought in or alongside the Red Army and Soviet resistance,[95] in Western Ukraine an independent Ukrainian Insurgent Army movement arose (UPA, 1942). It was created as the armed forces of the underground Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).[96][97] Both organizations, the OUN and the UPA, supported the goal of an independent Ukrainian state on the territory with a Ukrainian ethnic majority. Although this brought conflict with Nazi Germany, at times the Melnyk wing of the OUN allied with the Nazi forces. From mid-1943 until the end of the war, the UPA carried out massacres of ethnic Poles in the Volhynia and Eastern Galicia regions, killing around 100,000 Polish civilians,[98] which brought reprisals.[99] These organized massacres were an attempt by the OUN to create a homogeneous Ukrainian state without a Polish minority living within its borders, and to prevent the post-war Polish state from asserting its sovereignty over areas that had been part of pre-war Poland.[100] After the war, the UPA continued to fight the USSR until the 1950s.[101][102] At the same time, the Ukrainian Liberation Army, another nationalist movement, fought alongside the Nazis.[103]
Kyiv suffered significant damage during World War II, and was occupied by the Germans from 19 September 1941 until 6 November 1943.
In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians who fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million[95] to 7 million;[104][c] half of the Pro-Soviet partisan guerrilla resistance units, which counted up to 500,000 troops in 1944, were also Ukrainian.[105] Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are unreliable, with figures ranging anywhere from 15,000 to as many as 100,000 fighters.[106][107]
The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on the Eastern Front.[108] By some estimates, 93% of all German casualties took place there.[109] The total losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during the war are estimated at 6 million,[110][111] including an estimated one and a half million Jews killed by the Einsatzgruppen,[112] sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.6 million Soviet troop losses,[113][114][115] 1.4 million were ethnic Ukrainians,[113][115][c][d] and general losses of the Ukrainian people in the war amounted to 40–44% of the total losses of the USSR.[116][better source needed] The Victory Day is celebrated as one of eleven Ukrainian national holidays.[117]
Post–war Soviet Ukraine
Further information: Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964), History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982), and History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)
Two future leaders of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev (left, pre-war CPSU chief in Ukraine) and Leonid Brezhnev (an engineer from Kamianske)
The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed.[118] The situation was worsened by a famine in 1946–1947, which was caused by a drought and the wartime destruction of infrastructure, killing at least tens of thousands of people.[111] In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations (UN),[119] part of a special agreement at the Yalta Conference, and, alongside Belarus, had voting rights in the UN even though they were not independent.[120][121] Moreover, Ukraine once more expanded its borders as it annexed Zakarpattia, and the population became much more homogenized due to post-war population transfers, most of which, as in the case of Germans and Crimean Tatars, were forced. As of 1 January 1953, Ukrainians were second only to Russians among adult "special deportees", comprising 20% of the total.[122]
Following the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the USSR, who began the policies of De-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw. During his term as head of the Soviet Union, Crimea was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR, formally as a friendship gift to Ukraine and for economic reasons.[123] This represented the final extension of Ukrainian territory and formed the basis for the internationally recognized borders of Ukraine to this day. Ukraine was one of the most important republics of the Soviet Union, which resulted in many top positions in the Soviet Union occupied by Ukrainians, including notably Leonid Brezhnev, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982. However, it was him and his appointee in Ukraine, Volodymyr Shcherbytsky, who presided over extensive Russification of Ukraine and who were instrumental in repressing a new generation of Ukrainian intellectuals known as the Sixtiers.[124]
By 1950, the republic had fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production.[125] Soviet Ukraine soon became a European leader in industrial production[126] and an important centre of the Soviet arms industry and high-tech research, though heavy industry still had an outsided influence.[127] The Soviet government invested in hydroelectric and nuclear power projects to cater to the energy demand that the development carried. On 26 April 1986, however, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history.[128]
Independence
See also: Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Modern history of Ukraine, Orange Revolution, Euromaidan, Revolution of Dignity, Russo-Ukrainian War, and 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
Ukrainian President Leonid Kravchuk and President of the Russian Federation Boris Yeltsin signed the Belavezha Accords, dissolving the Soviet Union, on 8 December 1991.
Mikhail Gorbachev pursued a policy of limited liberalization of public life, known as perestroika, and attempted to reform a stagnating economy. The latter failed, but the democratization of the Soviet Union fuelled nationalist and separatist tendencies among the ethnic minorities, including Ukrainians.[129] As part of the so-called parade of sovereignties, on 16 July 1990, the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine;[130] after a putsch of some Communist leaders in Moscow failed to depose Gorbachov, outright independence was proclaimed on 24 August 1991[131] and approved by 92% of the Ukrainian electorate in a referendum on 1 December.[132] Ukraine's new President, Leonid Kravchuk, went on to sign the Belavezha Accords and made Ukraine a founding member of the much looser Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS),[133] though Ukraine never became a full member of the latter as it did not ratify the agreement founding CIS.[134] These documents sealed the fate of the Soviet Union, which formally voted itself out of existence on 26 December.[135]
Ukraine was initially viewed as having favourable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union,[136] though it was one of the poorer Soviet republics by the end of the Soviet Union.[137] However, during its transition to the market economy, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than almost all of the other former Soviet Republics. During the recession, between 1991 and 1999, Ukraine lost 60% of its GDP[138][139] and suffered five-digit inflation rates.[140] The situation only stabilized well after the new currency, the hryvnia, fell sharply in late 1998 partially as a fallout from the Russian debt default earlier that year.[141] The legacy of the economic policies of the nineties was the mass privatization of state property that created a class of extremely powerful and rich individuals known as the oligarchs.[137] The country would then fall into sharp recessions as a result of the 2008 global financial crisis,[137] then the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2014,[142] and finally, the full-scale invasion of Russia in starting from 24 February 2022.[143] Ukraine's economy in general underperformed since the time independence came due to pervasive corruption and mismanagement,[144] which, particularly in the 1990s, led to protests and organized strikes.[145] The war with Russia impeded meaningful economic recovery in the 2010s,[146] while efforts to combat the COVID-19 pandemic, which arrived in 2020, were made much harder by low vaccination rates[147] and, later in the pandemic, by the ongoing invasion.[148]
Protesters at Independence Square on the first day of the Orange Revolution
From the political perspective, one of the defining features of the politics of Ukraine is that for most of the time, it has been divided along two issues: the relation between Ukraine, the West and Russia, and the classical left-right divide.[149] The first two presidents, Kravchuk and Leonid Kuchma, tended to balance the competing visions of Ukraine,[150] though Yushchenko and Yanukovych were generally pro-Western and pro-Russian, respectively. There were two major protests against Yanukovych: the Orange Revolution in 2004, when tens of thousands of people went in protest of election rigging in his favour (Yushchenko was eventually elected president), and another one in the winter of 2013/2014, when more gathered on the Euromaidan to oppose the Yanukovych's refusal to sign the European Union–Ukraine Association Agreement. By the end of the 2014 protests, he fled from Ukraine and was removed by the parliament in what is termed the Revolution of Dignity, but Russia refused to recognize the interim pro-Western government, calling it a junta and denouncing the events as a coup d'état sponsored by the United States.[151][152][153]
Even though Russia had signed the so-called Budapest memorandum in 1994 that said that Ukraine was to hand over nuclear weapons in exchange of security guarantees and those of territorial integrity, it reacted violently to these developments and started a war against its western neighbour. In late February and early March 2014, it annexed Crimea using its Navy in Sevastopol as well as the so-called little green men; after this succeeded, it then launched a proxy war in the Donbas via the breakaway Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic.[154] The first months of the conflict with the Russian-backed separatists were fluid, but Russian forces then started an open invasion in Donbas on 24 August 2014. Together they pushed back Ukrainian troops to the frontline established in February 2015, i.e. after Ukrainian troops withdrew from Debaltseve.[155] The conflict remained in a sort of a frozen state until the early hours of 24 February 2022,[156] when Russia proceeded with an ongoing invasion of Ukraine (euphemized in Russia as a "special military operation").[157] Russian troops now control about 20% of Ukraine's internationally recognized territory,[158] though Russia was not able to realize its stated objective of taking full control of the country.[159]
Current control of Ukraine by Russian troops
The military conflict with Russia shifted the government's policy towards the West. Shortly after Yanukovych fled Ukraine, the country signed the EU association agreement in June 2014, and its citizens were granted visa-free travel to the European Union three years later. In January 2019, the Orthodox Church of Ukraine was recognized as independent of Moscow, which reversed the 1686 decision of the patriarch of Constantinople and dealt a further blow to Moscow's influence in Ukraine.[160] Finally, amid a full-scale war with Russia, Ukraine was granted candidate status to the European Union on 23 June 2022.[161]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Ukraine
Topographic map of Ukraine (with borders and towns)
Ukraine is the second-largest European country, after Russia. Lying between latitudes 44° and 53° N, and longitudes 22° and 41° E., it is mostly in the East European Plain. Ukraine covers an area of 603,628 square kilometres (233,062 sq mi), with a coastline of 2,782 kilometres (1,729 mi).[46]
The landscape of Ukraine consists mostly of fertile plains (or steppes) and plateaus, crossed by rivers such as the Dnieper (Dnipro), Seversky Donets, Dniester and the Southern Bug as they flow south into the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov. To the southwest, the delta of the Danube forms the border with Romania. Ukraine's various regions have diverse geographic features ranging from the highlands to the lowlands. The country's only mountains are the Carpathian Mountains in the west, of which the highest is Hoverla at 2,061 metres (6,762 ft), and the Crimean Mountains, in the extreme south along the coast.[162]
Ukraine also has a number of highland regions such as the Volyn-Podillia Upland (in the west) and the Near-Dnipro Upland (on the right bank of Dnieper). To the east there are the south-western spurs of the Central Russian Upland over which runs the border with the Russian Federation. Near the Sea of Azov can be found the Donets Ridge and the Near Azov Upland. The snow melt from the mountains feeds the rivers and their waterfalls.
Significant natural resources in Ukraine include lithium,[163] natural gas,[164] kaolin,[164] timber[165] and an abundance of arable land.[166] Ukraine has many environmental issues.[167][168] Some regions lack adequate supplies of potable water.[169] Air and water pollution affects the country, as well as deforestation, and radiation contamination in the northeast stemming from the 1986 accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.[170]
Climate
Köppen climate classification.
Ukraine has a mostly temperate climate, except for the southern coast of Crimea which has a subtropical climate.[171] The climate is influenced by moderately warm, humid air from the Atlantic Ocean.[172] Average annual temperatures range from 5.5–7 °C (41.9–44.6 °F) in the north, to 11–13 °C (51.8–55.4 °F) in the south.[172] Precipitation is highest in the west and north and lowest in the east and southeast.[172] Western Ukraine, particularly in the Carpathian Mountains, receives around 120 centimetres (47.2 in) of precipitation annually, while Crimea and the coastal areas of the Black Sea receive around 40 centimetres (15.7 in).[172]
Water availability from the major river basins is expected to decrease due to climate change, especially in summer. This poses risks to the agricultural sector.[173] The negative impacts of climate change on agriculture are mostly felt in the south of the country, which has a steppe climate. In the north, some crops may be able to benefit from a longer growing season.[174] The World Bank has stated that Ukraine is highly vulnerable to climate change.[175]
Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of Ukraine
Ukraine contains six terrestrial ecoregions: Central European mixed forests, Crimean Submediterranean forest complex, East European forest steppe, Pannonian mixed forests, Carpathian montane conifer forests, and Pontic steppe.[176] There is somewhat more coniferous than deciduous forest.[177] The most densely forested area is Polisia in the northwest, with pine, oak, and birch.[177] There are 45,000 species of animal,[178] with approximately 385 endangered species listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine.[179] Internationally important wetlands cover over 7,000 square kilometres (2,700 sq mi), with the Danube Delta being important for conservation.[180][181]
Urban areas
Main article: List of cities in Ukraine
Ukraine has 457 cities, of which 176 are designated as oblast-class, 279 as smaller raion-class cities, and two as special legal status cities. There are also 886 urban-type settlements and 28,552 villages.[182]
Largest cities or towns in Ukraine
2021 [2]
Rank Name Region Pop. Rank Name Region Pop.
Kyiv
Kyiv
Kharkiv
Kharkiv 1 Kyiv Kyiv (city) 2,962,180 11 Luhansk Luhansk 399,559 Odesa
Odesa
Dnipro
Dnipro
2 Kharkiv Kharkiv 1,433,886 12 Vinnytsia Vinnytsia 370,601
3 Odesa Odesa 1,015,826 13 Makiivka Donetsk 340,337
4 Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk 980,948 14 Sevastopol Sevastopol (city) 340,297
5 Donetsk Donetsk 905,364 15 Simferopol Crimea 336,330
6 Zaporizhzhia Zaporizhzhia 722,713 16 Chernihiv Chernihiv 285,234
7 Lviv Lviv 721,510 17 Kherson Kherson 283,649
8 Kryvyi Rih Dnipropetrovsk 612,750 18 Poltava Poltava 283,402
9 Mykolaiv Mykolaiv 476,101 19 Khmelnytskyi Khmelnytskyi 274,582
10 Mariupol Donetsk 431,859 20 Cherkasy Cherkasy 272,651
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Ukraine, Government of Ukraine, and Elections in Ukraine
Further information: Russo-Ukrainian War and 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches.[183]
Constitution
Main article: Constitution of Ukraine
Chart of the political system of Ukraine
The Constitution of Ukraine was adopted and ratified at the 5th session of the Verkhovna Rada, the parliament of Ukraine, on 28 June 1996.[184] The constitution was passed with 315 ayes out of 450 votes possible (300 ayes minimum).[184] All other laws and other normative[clarification needed] legal acts of Ukraine must conform to the constitution. The right to amend the constitution through a special legislative procedure is vested exclusively in the parliament. The only body that may interpret the constitution and determine whether legislation conforms to it is the Constitutional Court of Ukraine. Since 1996, the public holiday Constitution Day is celebrated on 28 June.[185][186] On 7 February 2019, the Verkhovna Rada voted to amend the constitution to state Ukraine's strategic objectives as joining the European Union and NATO.[187]
President, parliament and government
Volodymyr Zelensky Official portrait.jpg Денис Шмигаль 2020 3 (cropped).jpg
Volodymyr Zelenskyy
President Denys Shmyhal
Prime Minister
The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and is the formal head of state.[188] Ukraine's legislative branch includes the 450-seat unicameral parliament, the Verkhovna Rada.[189] The parliament is primarily responsible for the formation of the executive branch and the Cabinet of Ministers, headed by the prime minister.[190] The president retains the authority to nominate the ministers of foreign affairs and of defence for parliamentary approval, as well as the power to appoint the prosecutor general and the head of the Security Service.[191]
Laws, acts of the parliament and the cabinet, presidential decrees, and acts of the Crimean parliament may be abrogated by the Constitutional Court, should they be found to violate the constitution. Other normative acts are subject to judicial review. The Supreme Court is the main body in the system of courts of general jurisdiction. Local self-government is officially guaranteed. Local councils and city mayors are popularly elected and exercise control over local budgets. The heads of regional and district administrations are appointed by the president in accordance with the proposals of the prime minister.[192]
Courts and law enforcement
Main articles: Judicial system of Ukraine and Law enforcement in Ukraine
Klovsky Palace, home to the Supreme Court of Ukraine
Martial law was declared when Russia invaded in February 2022,[193] and continues.[194][195]
The courts enjoy legal, financial and constitutional freedom guaranteed by Ukrainian law since 2002. Judges are largely well protected from dismissal (except for gross misconduct). Court justices are appointed by presidential decree for an initial period of five years, after which Ukraine's Supreme Council confirms their positions for life. Although there are still problems, the system is considered to have been much improved since Ukraine's independence in 1991. The Supreme Court is regarded as an independent and impartial body, and has on several occasions ruled against the Ukrainian government. The World Justice Project ranks Ukraine 66 out of 99 countries surveyed in its annual Rule of Law Index.[196]
Prosecutors in Ukraine have greater powers than in most European countries, and according to the European Commission for Democracy through Law "the role and functions of the Prosecutor's Office is not in accordance with Council of Europe standards".[197] The conviction rate is over 99%,[198] equal to the conviction rate of the Soviet Union, with[199] suspects often being incarcerated for long periods before trial.[200]
The Cabinet of Ministers building
On 24 March 2010, President Yanukovych formed an expert group to make recommendations on how to "clean up the current mess and adopt a law on court organization".[200] One day later, he stated "We can no longer disgrace our country with such a court system."[200] The criminal judicial system and the prison system of Ukraine remain quite punitive.[201]
Since 2010 court proceedings can be held in Russian by mutual consent of the parties. Citizens unable to speak Ukrainian or Russian may use their native language or the services of a translator.[202][203] Previously all court proceedings had to be held in Ukrainian.[201]
Law enforcement agencies are controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs. They consist primarily of the national police force and various specialised units and agencies such as the State Border Guard and the Coast Guard services. Law enforcement agencies, particularly the police, faced criticism for their heavy handling of the 2004 Orange Revolution. Many thousands of police officers were stationed throughout the capital, primarily to dissuade protesters from challenging the state's authority but also to provide a quick reaction force in case of need; most officers were armed.[204]
Foreign relations
Main articles: Foreign relations of Ukraine, International membership of Ukraine, Ukraine–European Union relations, and Ukraine and the World Bank
President of Georgia Salome Zurabishvili, President of Moldova Maia Sandu, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy and European Council President Charles Michel during the 2021 International Conference in Batumi. In 2014, the EU signed association agreements with all three countries.
From 1999 to 2001, Ukraine served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. Historically, Soviet Ukraine joined the United Nations in 1945 as one of the original members following a Western compromise with the Soviet Union.[205] Ukraine has consistently supported peaceful, negotiated settlements to disputes. It has participated in the quadripartite talks on the conflict in Moldova and promoted a peaceful resolution to the conflict in the post-Soviet state of Georgia. Ukraine also has made contributions to UN peacekeeping operations since 1992.[206]
Ukraine considers Euro-Atlantic integration its primary foreign policy objective,[207] but in practice it has always balanced its relationship with the European Union and the United States with strong ties to Russia. The European Union's Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with Ukraine went into force in 1998. The European Union (EU) has encouraged Ukraine to implement the PCA fully before discussions begin on an association agreement, issued at the EU Summit in December 1999 in Helsinki, recognizes Ukraine's long-term aspirations but does not discuss association.[207]
In 1992, Ukraine joined the then-Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (now the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)), and also became a member of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. Ukraine–NATO relations are close and the country has declared interest in eventual membership.[207]
Ukraine is the most active member of the Partnership for Peace (PfP). All major political parties in Ukraine support full eventual integration into the European Union.[208] The Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union was signed in 2014.[209]
Ukraine long had close ties with all its neighbours, but Russia–Ukraine relations rapidly deteriorated in 2014 due to the annexation of Crimea, energy dependence and payment disputes.
In January 2016, Ukraine joined the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (green) with the EU (blue), established by the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement, opening its path towards European integration.
The Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA), which entered into force in January 2016 following the ratification of the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement, formally integrates Ukraine into the European Single Market and the European Economic Area.[210][211] Ukraine receives further support and assistance for its EU-accession aspirations from the International Visegrád Fund of the Visegrád Group that consists of Central European EU members the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and Slovakia.[212]
In 2020, in Lublin, Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine created the Lublin Triangle initiative, which aims to create further cooperation between the three historical countries of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and further Ukraine's integration and accession to the EU and NATO.[213]
In 2021, the Association Trio was formed by signing a joint memorandum between the Foreign Ministers of Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine. The Association Trio is a tripartite format for enhanced cooperation, coordination, and dialogue between the three countries (that have signed the Association Agreement with the EU) with the European Union on issues of common interest related to European integration, enhancing cooperation within the framework of the Eastern Partnership, and committing to the prospect of joining the European Union.[214] As of 2021, Ukraine was preparing to formally apply for EU membership in 2024, in order to join the European Union in the 2030s,[215] however, with the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy requested that the country be admitted to the EU immediately.[216] Candidate status was granted on 23 June 2022.[161]
Armed forces
Main article: Armed Forces of Ukraine
Henadii Lachkov, commander of the Ukrainian contingent in Multi-National Force – Iraq, kisses his country's flag
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine inherited a 780,000-man military force on its territory, equipped with the third-largest nuclear weapons arsenal in the world.[217][218] In 1992, Ukraine signed the Lisbon Protocol in which the country agreed to give up all nuclear weapons to Russia for disposal and to join the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapon state. By 1996 the country had become free of nuclear weapons.[217]
Ukraine took consistent steps toward reduction of conventional weapons. It signed the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which called for reduction of tanks, artillery, and armoured vehicles (army forces were reduced to 300,000). The country plans to convert the current conscript-based military into a professional volunteer military.[219][better source needed] Ukraine's current military consist of 196,600 active personnel and around 900,000 reservists.[220]
The Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sahaydachniy (U130)
Ukraine played an increasing role in peacekeeping operations. In 2014, the Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sagaidachniy joined the European Union's counter piracy Operation Atalanta and was part of the EU Naval Force off the coast of Somalia for two months.[221] Ukrainian troops were deployed in Kosovo as part of the Ukrainian-Polish Battalion.[222]
A Ukrainian unit was deployed in Lebanon, as part of UN Interim Force enforcing the mandated ceasefi
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우크라이나(우크라이나어: Україна)는 동유럽 국가다. 남쪽과 남동쪽으로는 흑해와 아조프해, 동쪽과 북동쪽으로는 러시아, 북쪽과 북서쪽으로는 벨라루스, 서쪽으로는 폴란드, 슬로바키아, 헝가리, 남서쪽으로는 루마니아, 몰도바와 접한다. 키이우가 수도이며 가장 큰 도시다. 동유럽 평원과 이어져 있으며 기후는 비교적 온화한 편이다. 법적 공용어는 우크라이나어이고, 인구 대부분은 우크라이나어를 사용하지만, 대부분 동부 인구(주로 동부 지역과 동남부 지역, 오데사 지역)는 러시아어 사용자이기도 하다. 주요 도시로는 키이우, 도네츠크, 드니프로, 하르키우, 르비우, 오데사, 자포리자가 있다. 2014년 러시아가 크림반도를 합병함에 따라 행정력이 크림반도에 미치지 못하지만, 국제사회는 대체로 크림반도를 우크라이나의 일부라는 태도를 견지하고 있다.
중세 초 루스 카간국으로부터 키예프 루스로 이어진 우크라이나는 오랫동안 투르크족·몽골족 등 지배를 받았다. 19세기까지 대다수 우크라이나 영토가 러시아 제국에 통합되었고, 나머지 부분은 오스트리아-헝가리 통제 아래 있었다. 우크라이나는 러시아 혁명 후 혼란과 끊임 없는 전쟁 속에서 여러 차례 독립을 시도하여 1917년에 민족국가를 건설했으나, 1922년에 소비에트 연방에 강제 합병되었다. 1923년 소비에트 연방 헌법 적용을 받으며 우크라이나 소비에트 사회주의 공화국이란 이름의 구성국으로 존재했다, 1991년 소련 해체와 함께 독립하였다.[1]
지하 자원이 풍부하여 도네츠 탄전의 석탄, 크리보이로그의 철광석, 카르파티아 유전과 천연가스, 그 밖에 망간, 우라늄, 식염, 칼리염, 석회석 등을 산출한다. 산업으로는 석탄·철광·선철 생산에서 중요성 있다. 풍부한 수력 전기를 이용하여 기계 제조 공업·화학 공업이 크게 발달했으며 유수 공업 지대를 이루고 있다. 석탄업, 철강업, 기계 제조업, 화학 공업 중심은 돈바스·드니프로 주이며, 드니프로 강 하구에서 키이우 사이 6개 수력 발전소가 단계상(段階狀)으로 건설되어 있다. 우크라이나 경지율은 약 70%에 이르고 있어, 겨울밀·옥수수·보리·사탕무·해바라기·포도의 재배, 가축 사양 등에서는 구소련 시절 매우 중요한 지위를 차지하고 있었다. 온난한 크림 반도 남단과 광천이 솟는 카르파트 지방은 중요한 관광·보양지다.[1] 러시아 작가 니콜라이 고골의 작품 〈타라스 부리바〉 배경으로도 알려졌다. 공용어는 우크라이나어를 쓰고, 우크라이나 국민 절대 다수가 믿는 종교는 우크라이나 정교회다.
자연 환경
지리
<nowiki /> 이 부분의 본문은 우크라이나의 지리입니다.
동유럽 지도 - V. Coronelli (1690).
우크라이나 지도
국토 면적 603,700km2에 576,700km2 (크림 공화국과 세바스토폴 제외시) 해안선 길이는 2,782km로, 우크라이나는 세계에서 44번째로 큰 국가(중앙아프리카 공화국보다는 작고, 마다가스카르보다는 크다.)이다. 또한, 유럽에서는 두 번째로 큰 나라이다[2]. 어떤 사람들은 유럽의 중심이 우크라이나 서쪽의 라키브 마을 인근이라고 한다. 하지만 여전히 유럽의 지리적 중심을 보는 관점에 대해 논쟁이 있다.
우크라이나는 비옥한 평원, 스텝, 고원이 있으며, 그들을 지나가는 강이 흑해로 흘러들어간다. 거의 남쪽 만으로 강이 빠져나가고 남동부 지방에는 다뉴브 삼각지가 루마니아와 국경을 접하고 있다. 우크라이나의 대표적인 산은 카르파티아 산맥으로서 우크라이나 서부에 위치한다. 우크라이나에서 가장 높은 산은 호베를라 산으로 높이는 2,061m이다. 크림 반도를 따라서 넓은 해안선이 펼쳐진다.
우크라이나에 분포하고 있는 초르노젬(흑토) 지대는 비옥한 토양으로 유명하다. 그 밖에 아스팔트, 무연탄, 철, 망가니즈, 크롬, 타이타늄, 납, 아연, 알루미늄, 수은, 니켈, 천연 가스, 석유 등 70여 가지의 종류에 달하는 천연 자원이 매장되어 있다.
기후
대개 온화한 대륙성 기후를 보이는데 남쪽의 크림 반도 인근에서는 온난 습윤 기후가 나타나기도 한다. 비는 북서부 지방에 가장 많이 내리고 동부와 남동부 지역은 덜 오는 편이다. 겨울은 흑해 인근 지방이라면 따뜻하지만 내륙으로 들어갈수록 대체로 추워진다. 여름에는 전반적으로 따뜻하지만 남쪽 지방은 무덥다.
역사
<nowiki /> 이 부분의 본문은 우크라이나의 역사입니다.
기원
우크라이나 역사는 중앙아시아에서부터 건너와 동유럽을 정복한 튀르크 민족들의 관계를 빼 놓을 수 없다. 3세기부터 시작한 중앙아시아 투르크 민족들의 유럽 침공과 동슬라브족 정복 그리고 이주는 5세기부터 10세기까지 사바르 카간국에 이어 아바르 카간국 그리고 하자르 카간국까지 이어진다. 동유럽 동슬라브 원주민들은 사바르 카간국에 정복당해 프랑크족들과 대립하기도 하였고 하자르 카간국의 우크라이나 초원 정복으로 인해 동슬라브 문화는 서유럽의 문화와는 조금 이질적인 특징을 가지게 되었다. 하자르 카간국의 영향에 따라 동슬라브족으로서의 정체성이 생기기 시작하였고 8세기에서 9세기에 루스 카간국이라는 고대 투르크어인 군주 칭호인 카간을 자칭하는 북게르만족 루스인의 첫 국가가 등장하였다. 그 전까지는 벨라루스와 우크라이나를 지배했던 중앙아시아 투르크 민족들이 카간을 자칭하였으나 그 지배 아래 동슬라브인들도 완전히 종속과 동화되어 동슬라브인의 정체성이 확립되었고 그 후 동슬라브인들이 카간을 자칭하였다.
키예프 루스는 10세기까지 중앙아시아 투르크 민족의 영향을 받았고 이에 따라 류리크 왕조의 시조인 류리크 또한 위대한 카간이자 왕으로 불렸다는 기록이 존재한다. 862년경 전까지는 확실히 카간이라 칭한 루스인들이 페르시아 사서와 동, 서 로마 기록에 남아 있다. 여기에 원초연대기의 기록에서는 루스인들의 카간으로 알려진 류리크가 동슬라브족 지역에 정착하면서 류리크 왕조와 키예프 루스가 나타나며 카간이라는 호칭보다는 크냐지 또는 벨리키 크냐지라는 호칭이 자주 쓰이게 된다.[3] 동슬라브인들은 튀르크계 카간국인 하자르 카간국의 지배하에 오랫동안 있었다. 루스인들의 첫 국가인 루스 카간국이 키예프 루스로 발전하였고 그 남쪽이 현재 우크라이나 영토이다. 이 중세 국가의 수도는 현 우크라이나의 수도인 키이우였다. 키예프 루스는 현재의 북게르만족 계통의 루스인들이 세웠다고 하나 동유럽 학자들은 이에 부정적이다. 루스인들은 강력한 류리크 왕조를 세웠다. 그리하여 10세기와 11세기에는 키예프 루스가 유럽에서 가장 중요한 국가 중 하나가 되어 후의 우크라이나, 벨라루스, 러시아 3국의 국가 정체성 형성의 바탕이 되었다.
키예프 루스는 내부 분열과 몽골의 침략으로 멸망하였다. 우크라이나 땅에는 갈리치아(Galicia, Halych)와 볼히니아(Volhynia, Volodymyr-Volynskii) 두 공국이 그 뒤를 이었다. 갈리치아와 볼히니아는 갈리치아-볼히니아 왕국으로 합쳐졌다 분열되고 결국은 폴란드-리투아니아 연방에 의해 정복되었다.
근대
17세기 중반에는 우크라이나 중부에 카자크 수장국이 세워져 백년 이상 러시아 차르국의 압력을 견뎠으나 결국 폴란드와 러시아에 의해 분할되었다. 그 후 18세기 후반의 폴란드 분할을 통해 우크라이나의 중부와 동부는 러시아 제국에 합병되고 서부는 오스트리아-헝가리 제국에 합병되었다.
1917년 러시아 혁명 이후 오스트리아 지배 하의 서부 우크라이나와 러시아 지배 하의 동부 우크라이나가 각각 독립을 선언, 1920년에는 동서 통일을 선언했으나 외부 군대의 침략으로 신생 독립국 우크라이나는 오래 가지 못하였다. 결국 1922년에 서쪽은 폴란드, 동쪽은 소비에트 연방의 영토가 되었다. 소비에트 연방령 우크라이나는 1921년~1922년, 1932년~1933년 두 차례에 걸쳐 큰 기근을 겪었다. 둘째 기근은 스탈린이 집단 농장 체제에 저항이 심했던 우크라이나에 대해 인위적으로 부른 기근으로 홀로도모르라 불린다. 이로 인한 사망자 수는 적게는 8백만 명에서 많게는 1천만 명 이상으로 추산되고 있다.
우크라이나의 역사
Історія України
Kijów - Sobór Mądrości Bożej 02.jpg
선사시대
전근대
근대
현대
vte
1939년 제2차 세계 대전이 발발하자 소비에트 연방은 폴란드를 침공, 우크라이나 서부를 우크라이나 소비에트 사회주의 공화국의 일부로 만들었다. 1941년에는 독일군과 추축군이 소비에트 연방의 적군을 쳐부수었다. 소비에트 연방이 '영웅 도시'라 칭한 키예프 전투에서는 66만 여명이 넘는 소비에트 연방군이 포로로 잡혔다. 처음에는 우크라이나인들이 독일군을 '해방군'으로 환영했다. 그러나 나치 독일은 곧 대량 학살을 시작하여 유대인들과 우크라이나인 민간인들을 죽이거나 강제 추방하였다. 마을 전체를 태워 없애기도 하여 우크라이나인들은 독일의 지배가 소비에트 연방의 지배처럼 포악하다고 판단하게 되었다. 전쟁 중과 독일 치하의 민간인 사망자 수는 50여만 명이 넘는 유대인들을 포함하여 7백만 명 정도로 추산된다. 갈리치아 지방에서는 폴란드인들과 우크라이나인들끼리 서로 집단 학살을 저지르기도 한 끔찍한 시기였다. 독일과의 전투로 소련군은 약 1천 100만 명의 사망자를 냈는데 그 가운데 270만 명이 우크라이나계였다. 우크라이나 민족은 추축국
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